Labisse Felix Labrouste Henri Lachaise Gaston (1882-1935). French sculptor who emigrated to the U.S.A. in 1906. He is known chiefly for his imposing female nudes of exaggerated but balanced proportions. Famous examples are his versions of Standing Woman (1012-27, 1932) Lacombe Georges La Fresnaye Roger de Laer Pieter van (nicknamed 'Bamboccio', It. bonny baby) (d. 1642). Dutch painter who spent most of his working life in Rome specializing in the scenes of low life which influenced many Dutch artists. *Bambocciata. Laethem-Saint-Martin. Belgian village with which 2 groups of 20th-c. artists have been associated. The first was a Symbolist group led by Valerius de Saedeleer (1867-1947) and Gustaaf van de Woestijne (1881-1947), the second and more important an Fxpressionist group represented by Van den *Berghe, *Permeke and De *Smet. La Farge John (1835-1910). U.S. painter, designer and writer on art; of French parentage. He studied in Paris under T. Couture and visited Britain, coming under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelites. Back in the U.S.A. he concentrated on mural decoration and stained-glass work. La Fresnaye Roger de (1885-1925). French painter, studied in Pans at the Academic Julian (1903), the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and the Academic- Ranson (1908). where he met *Denis and *Serusier. Their influence was succeeded by Cezanne's, which prepared him for *Cubism. He exhibited with the other Cubist painters in 1911 and at the Section d'Or of 1912, without ever really subscribing to Cubist principles. In paintings such as La Conquete de l'air (1913) he adopted the superficial manner of Cubism — particularly its structural clarity — to suit traditional requirements. A very accomplished painter, he was the 1st 'academic' in the new idiom. Laguerre Louis (1663-1721). French painter who worked under C. Lebrun before settling in Britain as assistant to A. Verrio. He executed decorative work at several of Britain's greatest houses. La Hire (Hyre) Laurent de (1606-56). French painter of religious subjects and landscape. The Caravaggesque style of his work up to 1640 probably derived from Vouet as he did not himself visit Italy; in his later work he followed Poussin. Lalique Rene Lalique Rene (2) Lamba Jacqueline Lam Wifredo (1902-82). Cuban painter influenced by Picasso and Surrealism, and based on African sculpture and folk-art. His work evokes the savage world of the jungle and the primitive mythology of Cuba. He made use of the theme of metamorphosis as m Jungles (1943). Lancret Nicholas (1690-1743). French painter of fetes galantes and comntedia dell'arte scenes; an imitator of Watteau, with whom he studied under Gillot. Land art. *Farth art Landseer Sir Edwin (1802-73). British artist, immensely popular in the 19th c. and early 20th с. Не invented, or at any rate, popularized, the animal, heroic or domestic, embodying popular virtues, e.g. the dog of' The Old Shepherd's Chief Mourner, the stag of The Monarch of the Clen. L. modelled the lions for the base of Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square (1867). Lane Fitz Hugh (1804-65). U.S. marine painter, a leading figure of *Luminism. His works include Oul's Head, Penobscot Bay (1862). Lanfranco Giovanni (1582-1647). Italian Baroque painter, pupil of Agostino Carracci and influenced by the ceiling paintings of Correggio. He worked in Rome and Naples and decorated the domes and apses of many churches with lllusionistic paintings, a famous example being the dome of S. Andrea del Valle, Rome (1625—8). Langetti Giovan Battista Langley Batty (1696-1751). Pioneer of British landscape gardening. In 1740 he started a school of architectural drawing, undertaking to design 'Grottos, Cascades, Caves, Temples, Pavilions and other Rural Buildings of Pleasure'. He produced over 20 books of engravings and instructions on building and landscaping which had widespread influence on taste. He helped to popularize Gothic architecture as an exotic style, though his attempt to classify it in 5 'orders' was a failure. Lanier Nicholas (1588—1666). British musician and painter of French descent; Charles I's agent in Italy for the purchase of paintings. He composed music for masques by Ben Johnson, singing the masque Lovers made Men (1617) in Italian recitative style and designing the set. He also left a self-portrait. Lansere Eugene Lanyon Peter (1918-64). British painter. He studied at the Penzance and *Euston Road art schools. He was one of the artists who worked at *St Ives, Cornwall. Laocoon (c. 50 BC). Highly naturalistic and emotional late Hellenistic marble group of the Rhodian school. The Trojan priest L. was killed with his sons for offending the gods. Found in Nero's palace on the Esquiline in 1506, the statue profoundly influenced Michelangelo. Laokoon (1766) is the title of a treatise on art by *Lessing in which he attacked the Neoclassical views of the tragic and the beautiful which *Winckelmann considered that the statue of the Laocoon embodied. Lapicque Charles (1898—1988). French painter. In his early work in the 1920s and 1930s he alternated between abstract and representational styles but later combined these elements in his vivacious compositions. Largilliere Nicolas de (1656— 1746). French Rococo portrait painter. He studied in Antwerp, then worked in London as assistant to P. Lely. In 1682 he went to Pans, where he became the favourite painter of the wealthy bourgeoisie. He brought a new freedom and fluency to French portraiture. Larionov Mikhail (1881-1964). Russian painter trained in Moscow where he met *Goncharova. He was a prolific worker and a highly energetic personality who soon attracted a nucleus of Muscovite painters round him with whom he organized exhibitions such as the Golden Fleece, the 1st *Knave of Diamonds show, and in 1913 publ. his Rayonnist Manifesto which laid the foundations of abstract art in Russia. L. is important in Russian art history for his creative absorption of contemporary (1905—8) French ideas in painting; for his subsequent synthesis of these ideas with national folk-arts, e.g., in his Soldier series (1908—11); and for his Rayonnist work (1910—14), much of it abstract and among the first of such modern work, although not basically a system of non-representational composition. After 1914 he left Russia to work as a designer for Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, and from then lived in Paris. Laroon the Elder, Marcellus (1653-1702). Dutch painter and engraver who settled in Britain and worked as an assistant to *Kneller. Laroon the Younger, Marcellus (1679—1772). British painter and mezzotint engraver, actor and soldier, son of L. the Elder. He is best known for his conversation pieces similar in type to those of his friend Hogarth but painted in an unusual agitated style. There is an element of caricature in much ot his work. Lascaux. Prehistoric caves in the Dordogne accidentally discovered in 1940 and containing paintings of bulls, horses, deer, etc. executed by Cro-Magnon men in the Aurignacian period of the upper paleolithic era (c. 20,000 BC). The growth of a fungus which endangered the paintings — evidently caused by increased humidity — led to the sealing off ot the caves. *Cave art. Lastman Pieter Pietersz (1583—1633). Dutch painter of religious, mythological and historical subjects, and engraver who worked in Amsterdam. He visited Italy, where he was influenced by Caravaggio's use of chiaroscuro. Rembrandt and Jan Lievens were his pupils. La Тeпе. A site in E. Switzerland which has given its name to a style of Celtic art and a culture centred upon it and expanding throughout Central Europe and into Britain; it flourished in the last 5 cs BC. Its characteristic motifs are stylized and sinuous animal and plant forms; the style became increasingly abstract, especially in the art of Celtic Britain. La Tour Georges de (1593—1652). French artist born at Vic in Lorraine. La T. lived all his lite in the province, working at Luneville from 1620. Despite this isolation, he won recognition and rewards. In 1623 the duke of Lorraine became his patron. In 1638 King Louis XIII, accepting his St Sebastian letuled by St Irene, found it 'in such perfect taste that His Majesty had all the other pictures removed from his chamber and kept there only La T.'s'. This makes it curious that the artist was forgotten until his rediscovery in 1915. It has been claimed that his preference for scenes lit dramatically by a single artificial light shows the influence of Caravaggio or G. Honthorst, but this may have been an original discovery. Original, certainly, is the austere but rich and wonderfully effective colouring — red, yellow and a full range ot browns. There is considerable affinity in drawing between La T. and the *Master of Moulins. Outstanding examples of his work are: Job Taunted by his Wife, St Joseph's Dream, The Newborn and Magdalene with the Lamp. Latour Maurice-Quentin de (1704-88). French portraitist in pastel, one of the great masters of that medium, appointed painter to Louis XV in 1750. His work shows a degree of individual characterization outstanding in the portraiture of the Rococo period. Laughlin Clarence Laurencin Marie (1885—1956). French painter, designer and ill. Although she was a friend of avant-garde painters and poets in Paris her work was unaffected by modern movements. The grace and sensitivity of her paintings of young girls derive in part from her study of Persian miniatures and Rococo art. Laurens Henri (1885—1954). French sculptor and graphic artist, one of the leading *Cubist sculptors. His work at that time dealt with the structural correlation of geometric forms and his use of contrasting materials provided a sculptural parallel to collage. His polychrome sculptures in sheet-iron of 1914 anticipated Constructivist ideas. From 1930 he concentrated on the female figure as a basis for his work but remained preoccupied with the interplay of forms, organic instead of geometric. In much of his sculpture and graphic work he reinterpreted themes from Greek mythology. Lawrence Jacob (1917— ). Perhaps the most popular 20th-c. African-American artist — a popularity he felt once to be at the expense of fellow black artists — who paints colourful, stylized figurative scenes of African-American life. L. was predominantly influenced by black artists, among them the African-American sculptor Augusta Savage (1892—1962). His best-known work is a series entitled The Migration of the Negro (1940-1) which represents, through 60 panels connected by descriptions, design and colour, the mass-migration of over a million African-Americans to northern industrial towns from the South. He painted Captain Skinner (1944) after serving in the U.S. coastguard in 1944, but returned to his political and cultural concerns after the war, e.g. Struggle - The History of the American People (1953—5 in 30 panels). Lawrence Sir Thomas (1769—1830). British painter. At 22 his Miss Farren made him the rival of Reynolds, whose portrait style he followed, adding a bravura of his own. An unfinished portrait, Wilberforce, shows the quality beneath the glittering surface. Sarah Moulton Barrett is one of the most vivacious of his popular studies of children. Among the many men of the day he painted, his portraits The Duke of Wellington and Cieorge IV as Prince Regent are outstanding examples. Lawrie Lee Lawson Ernest (1873-1939). U.S. painter of rural and urban landscapes in an impressionistic style. He was a member of The *Eight and one of the sponsors of the Armory Show (1913). Lay figure. Wooden figure with jointed limbs, and often life-size, used to establish a pose or carry drapery. It is said to have been invented by Fra Bartolommeo. Layne Bill Leal Juan Valdes Lear Edward (1812—88). British poet and artist. He produced delicate and proficient drawings and watercolour landscapes of his travels through the countries on the Mediterranean and in India. He was regarded highly enough to be drawing master to Queen Victoria. In his nonsense drawings and poems (Book of Nonsense, 1846; Nonsense Songs, 1871; More Nonsense, 1872; Laughable Lyrics, 1877; Nonsense Songs and Stories, 1895) he found relief in the mannered idealism of his age in line and verse at once tunelessly direct and a parody of Victorianism. Le Bas Jacques-Philippe (1707-83). French *Rococo designer and engraver. Le Brun Charles (1619-90). French painter, a student under Vouet and also in Rome, where he was influenced by Poussin. L.'s elegant and decorative classicism is thin-blooded, but as chief painter to the king (from 1662) and director of the Gobelins factory (from 1663), under the patronage of Colbert, he controlled the arts in France into the 1680s. He was also a founder and later director of the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. His works include much of the decoration at Versailles. Le Corbusier originally named Charles-Edouard Jeanneret (1887—1965). One of the greatest modern architects. He was born in Switzerland. In addition to being an architect, Le C. was a propagandist for architecture, a founder of the C.I.A.M. and author of many books, the most influential Vers une architecture (1923). He was also a painter of some note, and in 1917 founded *Purism, with *Ozenfant; they publ. the influential magazine L'Esprit Nouveau. Leek Bart van der (1876—1958). Dutch painter and designer strongly influenced by *Mondrian and associated with Van *Doesburg in the 1st issue of De Stijl. Leech John (1817-64). British ill. and caricaturist, best known for his contributions to Punch (from 1841); his book ills included Dickens's (Christmas Books, and Barham's Ingoldsby Legends. L. also made ills for the sporting novels of R. Surtees, incl. Jorrocks's Jaunts and Jollities (1838) and Handley Cross (1843). Leeteg Edgar LEF. *Vkhutemas Le Faguas Pierre Leger Fernand (1881 —1955). French painter, trained initially as an architectural designer. He studied in various Paris studios between 1903 and 1907 when, like many others, he discovered Cezanne. For the next 7 years, reacting against the diffuseness of his early Neo-Impressionist manner, he worked towards a concentrated structural strength in his painting. His early *Cubist paintings (nicknamed 'tubist') differed from the mainstream m their volumetric solidity, in their deep space and in a *Futurist 'tendency towards the dynamic'. With his friend Delannay he was one of the most influential Cubist painters: Mondrian greatly admired him and the transitional works (c. 1911—12) of Malevich seem to derive directly from paintings such as Nus dans un paysage (1909—11). By 1912 (La Femme en Bleu) he was Hearing abstraction. He attributed his post-war abandonment of his path to his wartime discoveries first of the working man and second or the beauty of machinery. His major works are of contemporary subjects, simple in their black contours and bold colour areas and endowing the ordinary man with a 19th-c. monumentality, e.g. Les Loisins (1948—9). His contact with *De Stijl circles in the 1930s did not diminish his deep respect for the figurative tradition. He also collaborated on a film, Le Ballet mecaniqtie (1923—4) with Man Ray, and designed for stained glass, mosaics, ceramics and the stage. Legros Alphonse (1837—1911). French painter and etcher. He was associated with the early Impressionists and was a friend of Whistler, who persuaded him to come to Britain, where he settled. He was Slade professor at Univ. College, London (1876—92). Lehmbruck Wilhelm (1881 —1919). German sculptor. After living in Paris (1910—14) he returned to (lermany at the beginning of World War I; shocked by his experiences as a nurse in a military hospital he committed suicide. His early work was influenced by *Maillol. In 19т i with Kneeling Woman he began to create the slender, melancholy, expressionistic type of figure characteristic of his maturity. Legnanino - Stefano Maria Legnani Leibl Wilhelm (1844—1900). German portrait, genre and subject painter, the most important representative of Kjth-c. German Realism. He was a painter of intensity and power, frequently taking peasant life as his subject, e.g. Three Women in Church. Leighton Frederic, Lord (1830—96). British painter and sculptor, the leading exponent of the sentimental classicism and idealism of the late Victorian era, in opposition to the *Pre-Raphaelites. He was brought up and studied on the Continent but settled in London in i860. He became president of the R.A. (1878), and was the 1st painter to receive a peerage (1 896). His house, Leighton House, at Holland Park, London, is now a museum. Lelli Ercole Lely Sir Peter, born Pieter van der Faes (1618—80). Portrait painter, probably bom and certainly trained 111 Holland, but chiefly associated with the English school. L. arrived in Britain с 1641 where, in spite of early hesitation in style, some competition from native-born painters and the Cavil War, he became the chief portrait painter after Van Pyck's death. The (Children oj Charles I (1647) is close in style to Van 1 )yck. Oliver Cromwell (165 1) is more confident. At the Restoration L. was appointed principal painter to Charles II. Numerous commissions necessitated setting up a workshop. This grew larger and L.'s control diminished, as did the standard of paintings bearing his name. Of high quality: The Capel Sisters, Painter and Family, Lady Byron and the famous Admirals. Already showing the decline of L.'s art are the equally famous Beauties. Le Moyne (Lemoyne) Francoise (1688-1737). French decorative painter. He was an admirer of the work of Pietro da Cortona and one of the last French artists to follow the Baroque decorative tradition. He was employed at Versailles, where he painted his masterpiece, the ceiling of the Salon d'Hercule. Lempicka Tamara de Lemoyne Jean-Baptiste (1704—78). French sculptor to Louis XV, pupil of his father Jean-Louis L. and R. Le Lorrain. His finest monumental works for the king were destroyed during the Revolution and his reputation rests on his portrait busts. E.-M. Falconet, J.-B. Pigalle, A. Pajou and J.-A. Houdon were his pupils. Le Nain the brothers Antoine (1588—1648), Louis (1593-1648) and Matlneu (1607-77). French painters, rediscovered m the 19th c. Details of their lives are still obscure, but it is known that in 1648 they were members of the Academy. It is difficult to differentiate between them. Recent research has sought to establish Louis as the most significant; his pictures of peasants in their surroundings are painted with realism and formal strengths, and show the influence of Velazquez. The Family Portrait is a good example. Antoine worked mainly 011 a small scale and Matlneu produced more polished and pleasing paintings of cavaliers and genre. Lenbach Franz von (1836—1904). German popular portrait painter, e.g. his numerous portraits of Bismarck. Lentulov Aristarkh Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). Florentine painter, sculptor and draughtsman, a universal genius who was architect, town planner, inventor, scientist, writer and musician. L. was the natural son of the notary at Vinci, then under Florentine rule. His extraordinary gifts were soon apparent and he was apprenticed (r. ] 470) to Andrea Verrocchio, leading Florentine artist. His fellow-apprentices were Lorenzo di Credi and Botticelli. Little is known about this period except that L. came under the patronage of Lorenzo de' Medici and in 1472 became a master, a member of the Guild of St Luke. In 1482 he entered the service of Lodovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, where he was active as court painter, sculptor, architect and military engineer until the fall of Sforza in 1499, when the French armies occupied Milan. L. fled to Mantua, then to Venice, where he was employed as a military engineer. In 1500 he went to Florence, 2 years later joined Cesare Borgia in his campaigns, but on Borgia's defeat returned to Florence, where he remained until 1508. The Mona Lisa was painted in Florence between 1 503 and I 506. In 1508 L. was recalled to Milan by the French governor of the city, Charles d'Amboise, and for 5 years was occupied with scientific studies and plans for the construction of a canal. With his pupil and assistant, Francesco Melzi, he travelled to the Vatican in 1513 to seek the favour of the Medici Pope Leo X, but left disappointed in 1517 to join the court of the French king, Francis I. In Rome L. was surrounded by intrigue; in France, however, he was greatly appreciated and admired. He lived at the royal chateau de Cloux, near Amboise, until his death. L. left few authentic paintings. The Angel kneeling at the extreme left in Verrocchio's Baptism of Christ is believed to be his work. He assisted Verrocchio on a number of paintings, and this has led to a great deal of controversy over their authorship. The Annunciation (c. 1474) is attributed to L. on account of the mysterious landscape and the scientific rendering of depth; 2 Madonnas, now much restored, are also attributed to this period. In 1481 L. undertook a painting, the Adoration, for the monks of San Donato at Scopeto, but left it unfinished. The composition was significant for its grouping of figures, their expressive gestures and its chiaroscuro effect (also a characteristic of the unfinished St Jerome). During 1483 L. worked on the painting the Virgin of the Rocks; the version at the Louvre is considered to be earlier anil of greater artistic value. He painted a number of portraits of court ladies during his stay in Milan; the Lady with the Ermine was probably the duke's mistress. It is a masterly rendering of form and a profound psychological study. The Last Supper, painted 1495—8 for the refectory of the monastery of S. Maria delle Grazie, Milan, has, though now carefully restored, been much damaged and overpamted; moreover, because of L.'s experiment in this picture with oil paint, the wall surface was already affected by 1517. The spectator is drawn to participate in the action: Christ and the Apostles are sitting at a table which seems to stand as an extension of the refectory itself. In the Mona Lisa (1503) L. expressed with consummate skill his feeling for the mystery of existence. The forms are precise yet melting, fused into each other with subtle tonal transitions, the *sfumato perfected by L. and exploited by his followers. The cartoon of the Battle of Anghiari, painted at the same time in Florence, is now lost; several copies, including one by Rubens, have survived. When L. moved to France, he took with him the Mona Lisa, John the Baptist, and the Virgin and Child with St Anne. No authentic sculpture by L. is known. In Milan he made a model of an equestrian monument, the Sforza, but it was destroyed by French soldiers (1499) before it could be cast in bronze; it is known only by surviving drawings. Numerous landscape drawings and studies of heads and nude figures survive; many form part of his notes and scientific studies. L.'s draughtsmanship has never been equalled. His notebooks, written backwards and unknown to his contemporaries, contained profound scientific observations on proportion, perspective, optics, anatomy, geology and such inventions as cannons, tanks, a diving-suit and flying machines. His celebrated Treatise on Painting, which has survived in a fairly accurate copy by another hand, circulated widely in the ]6th c. L. greatly influenced his contemporaries, Correggio, Giorgione, Raphael and del Sarto, with his compositions and use of light. He influenced Rubens and foreshadowed the chiaroscuro of Rembrandt. Leoni Leone (1S09—90). Italian sculptor and goldsmith, mainly of portraits many of which arc in Spain, e.g. CJiarlcs V. Le Parcjuho (1928— ). Argentinian artist who settled in Paris 111 1 у s8. He founded the Groupc de Recherche d'Art Visuel based in the Galene Denis Rene where *Op and *Kinetic artists were shown. His Op(tical) work is concerned with perception, light, movement and illusion (e.g. Continuel Luiniere I'onnes en ("outorsiou, 1966). Lepape Georges Lepine Stanislas-Victor-Edmond (Edouard) (1835—92). French painter who with L.-E. Boudin and J. B. |ongkind was a forerunner of Impressionism. He was a pupil of J.-B. Oorot. Leprince fean-liaptiste (1734—81). French painter and engraver, inventor of the aquatint process of *engraving. Lesage Augustin Leslie Charles Robert (1794-1859). British painter of U.S. parentage who specialized in small paintings illustrating scenes from literature. He is remembered as author of Memoirs of John Constable, R.A. (1843), an important biography largely composed of extracts from Constable's correspondence. Lessing Gotthold Ephraim (1729-81). German scholar and writer on art, whose essay, *Laokoon (1766), became extremely influential. *Winckelmann. Le Sueur Eustache (1616—55). French painter of religious and mythological subjects, pupil of S. Vouet, who strongly influenced his early work. He subsequently followed Poussin's classicism, evident 111 his 22 paintings The Life of St Bruno (1645—8) tor the Charterhouse, Paris. In his late work he became a dull imitator of Raphael. Le Sueur Hubert. French sculptor of the early 17th c, from 1629 in Britain, where he did much mediocre work for Charles I. Leutze Emanuel Gottlieb (1816—68). German-born history painter who worked and settled in the U.S.A. His most famous painting was Washington (jvssing the Delaware (1851). Levi Juan de Levine Jack (1915— ). U.S. Hxpressionist painter, reminiscent of G. Grosz, whose work is devoted to social themes. The savage satire of The Feast of Pure Reason (1937) was moderated in later paintings by a more tolerant attitude towards humanity. Levine Sherrie (1947- ). U.S. *Postmodern artist who since the early 1980s has risen to prominence with her *appropnation works — watercolour and graphite copies from printed reproductions of photographs and paintings by modern masters, e.g. *Mondnan, *Malevich, Walker Evans, Edward Weston, etc. Using the originals she appropriated as *rcadymadcs, I., challenged received ideas of originality, drawing attention to relations between power, gender and creativity, consumerism and commodity value, the social sources and uses of art. In 1985 she ended direct appropriation and started painting abstracts. Levitan Isaak (1860—1900). Among the earliest painters of Russian landscape. A member of the *Abramtsevo Colony, he contributed designs for some of the earliest productions of Mamontov's 'Private Opera'. At the Moscow-College he was an influential professor among the future avant-garde, e.g. Talk, Kusnetsov, Larionov ami Tatlin. Levy-Dhurmer Lucien Lewis Edmonia (c. 1843—?iyii). African-American *Ncoclassical sculptor (originally named Wildfire by her Chippewa Indian mother, among whose tribe she grew up after being orphaned at 4). With the help of her brothers and several abolitionists, I., attended Obcrlin College, Ohio. I Iowever, she was forbidden to graduate, having been accused, although acquitted, of poisoning her roommates. After moving to Boston, patrons there enabled her to visit Italy 111 1865. She settled permanently in Rome and was taken up by a group of women artists — attracted to Italy by the quality of the marble, the attendant craftsmanship and the abundance of Classical sculpture — which centred around the U.S. sculptor Harriet Hosmer (1X30—1908). Hosmer, who was concerned mainly with the struggle of women against patriarchal constraints, encouraged L. to explore power conflicts. L. focused on the African-American revolt against slavery, with women as ob|ects of both racial and sexual oppression. Forever Free (1867) is a sculpture of a woman and a man freed on the morning of Lincoln's proclamation in 1863. Yet in their supplication to liberty they remain vestiges of enslavement with the manacles that linger on her foot and his wrist. The subsequent margin-ahzation of freedwomen 111 the U.S.A. after abolition (both within their own community and beyond) gives this work an ambiguous irony which is made stronger by L.'s only intermittent and mainly promotional return visits to the U.S.A., although she faced, perhaps personally less iniquitous, racism in Rome's view of her as a 'novelty'. H cigar in the Wilderness (186S) and Old Indiiiu Arrowmakcr and his Daughter (1872) are her best-known works, the former— that of the biblical Egyptian slave — a female allegory of black oppression in the U.S.A. and the latter a direct evocation of her native U.S. ancestry-Lewis Lredenck Christian (1779—1X56). British engraver and landscape painter. His brother George Robert L. (1782—1871) was a portrait and landscape painter, e.g. View in Herefordshire: I larvest. Lewis John Frederick (1805—76). British painter of oriental subjects, son of E. C. L. The brilliant colour and minute detail of his paintings attracted the admiration of Kuskin and anticipated the Pre-Raphaelites. Lewis Maud Lewis Wyndham (Percy) (1884-1957). British writer ami painter. After founding the Rebel Art Centre (1913) and *Vorticism, editing the 2 violently polemical numbers of the magazine BLAST (1914, 1915) and war service, I., emerged as the most powerful and one of the most imaginative figures in English art, revered by some artists, increasingly rejected by cultural and social orthodoxy. L.'s novels and critical writings were radical and ruthless attacks on contemporary art and society. He despised the 'average' intellect, and m art held to the 'great ideals of structure and formal significance'; Impressionism, in his view, marked the decay of Realism and neither Cubism, Futurism nor abstract art was the true way out of the impasse of 2oth-c. art. Art, he believed, was the science of the outside of things, and his own paintings and his drawings have a precise, tense, controlled line and a steely angularity of form and surface. His writings include: the novels 1 arr (1918); The Apes of Cod (1930), on the superficialities and pretensions of 1920s society; Revenge for Love (1937); and 'The Human Age, a trilogy -The Childermass (1928), Monstre Gni and Malign Fiesta (both 1955); the critical work Time and Western Man (1927) and the autobiographical Blasting and Bombardiering (i937)- His paintings include: famous portraits ofT. S. Eliot (1938 and 1949), Ezra Pound (1938) and Edith Sitwell (1923-35); Surrender of Barcelona (1936); and Mud Clinic (1937). He also produced graphic work. LeWitt Sol (1928- ). U.S. Minimalist artist, author of 'Paragraphs on *Conceptual Art' (Artfomm, 1967). L., like *Judd, has made modular and serial constructions, open modular cubes which derive from logical propositions and operations (49 j-Part Variations, 1967-70). In Ins drawings, geometrical patterns are derived from sets of instructions or are reinterpretations of mathematical calculations of points, lines and planes (10,000 Lines j" Long, 1972); concepts like 'towards' or 'between' are worked out in relation to the wall on which a drawing is executed usually by assistants from sets of instructions. Leyden Lucas van. *Lucas van Leyden Leyster Judith (1609-60). Dutch genre and portrait painter, wife of the painter Jan Molenaer. Lhote Andre (1885-1962). French painter and influential teacher and writer on art. His admiration for the work of Cezanne led him to join the Cubists, and in 1912 he exhibited with the Section d'Or group. His later work in a modified Cubist style became academic. Libera Adalberto Liberi Pietro Liberman Alexander (1912- ). Russian-born U.S. *Hard-edge abstract painter whose work developed against the current of *Abstract Expressionism and *Action painting of the late 1950s in N.Y. In his paintings, as in those by e.g. *Kelly and *Reinhardt, no distinction is made between foreground and background and the design and image — often achieved by staining unprimed canvas - are sharp and fresh. Lichtenstein Roy (1923-97). U.S. painter and sculptor, one of the main exponents of U.S. *Pop art. Like *Wesselmann, *Roscnquist and *Warhol, his subjects are often banal objects (golf ball, hamburger, hot dog) of modern commercial industrial U.S.A. and mass media, enlarged comic strips, showing printing with dots, talk balloons and exclamations (Whaam, 1963), parodies of famous paintings (Cezanne, Mondrian, Picasso, the Abstract Expressionists) and formalized landscapes. L.'s pictures are usually on a large scale, often painted 111 acrylic paint, using limited, flat colours and hard, precise drawing in a neutral, deadpan manner. Liebermann Max (1847—1935). German painter and etcher. L. studied 111 Amsterdam, where he was influenced by the Realism ofj. Israels, and in Paris, where he came into contact with Munkacsy, Gourbet and the painters of the *Harbi7on school. In 1873 he worked in Barbizon, then from 1884 in Berlin as an accomplished master of Naturalism, opposed to the theatrical school of Bocklin. His paintings of this period were dark and heavy, but from the 1890s the influence of Manet and the French Impressionists increased; he was elected president of the Berlin Secession in 1898. Famous and highly productive, I., became the most important German Impressionist. Lievensz (Lievens) Jan (1607—74). Dutch painter of portraits and religious, allegorical and genre subjects, pupil of l.astman. He worked for a time in Leyden with Rembrandt and in a very similar style. By 1635 he had moved to Antwerp, where his portraiture was influenced by Van Пуск, and his other work to a lesser extent by Rubens and Brouwer. Raising of Lazarus is a fine example of his work. His son Jan Andrea (1644—80) was a portrait painter. Ligare David Ligon Glenn (i960— ). African-American painter who transforms specific cultural experiences into wider explorations of race and identity, focusing on the power of language to define, dictate and marginalize. In Dreambooks (1990), L. draws on 'lexicons' once popular among the African-American community which offer ambiguous textual interpretations — 'readings' — of dreams, providing corresponding numbers, which were intended as a guide to gamblers. Profiles (1990) was prompted by the beating and rape of a white woman 111 Central Park, N.Y., in 1988, an event that focused the negative feelings of the media and many white New Yorkers towards black and hispamc men. Ligorio Pirro Limbourg brothers  Paul (Pol), Jean (Hcnnequm) and Herman (Hermant). Artists born in Flanders, probably the nephews of the painter |. Malouel. The brothers first entered the service of the dukes of Burgundy. From 141 1 they worked for the duke of Berry, succeedingj. de Hesdin. Paul, the greatest, was chiefly responsible for Les Ires Riches Heures du Due de Berry. This illuminated book of hours, one of the masterpieces of the ^International Gothic style, is a superb evocation of the age of chivalry and courtly love painted in its last years. The landscape backgrounds, especially of the calendar, are justly famous. All 3 artists were dead by 1416. limning (from illumination). Word meaning originally manuscript illumination and, from the 16th с onwards, the painting of miniature portraits. Lindisfarne Gospels (r. 700; 13. M.). Copy of the Vulgate written, and probably illuminated, by Eadfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne. The illuminations are a masterpiece of the Celtic style with the exception of 4 full-page miniatures of the Evangelists based on early Christian models. An interlinear Anglo-Saxon gloss was added about 950. It is also known as the Book of St Ctilhbert or the Durham Book. Lind Jerry von Lindner Richard (1901—78). German-born painter, he emigrated to the U.S.A. in 1941. L. evolved a mannered fetishistic style appropriate to subjects which evoke N.Y. life. Lindsay Norman (1879—1969). Australian artist, known mainly for his ills of Petronius, Rabelais and Villon, and also the poetry of Kenneth Mackenzie. Linnelljohn (1792-1882). British artist, friend and benefactor of Blake and father-in-law of Palmer. He painted portraits, miniatures on ivory, landscapes and religious subjects. His best works are the early portraits and landscapes, e.g. Kensington Sand Quarry. Linocut. Form of relief printing similar in technique to the woodcut. 1.1110, invented 111 the mid-i9th c, is easier to work than wood and is therefore often used when the durability of the block is not an important consideration. It is suited to bold, simplified rather than naturalistic effects. Liotard Jean-Etienne (1702—89). Swiss pastel-list and miniaturist who specialized 111 society and genre portraits, a fine example of the latter being Chocolate C,irl. He spent 5 years in Constantinople and on his return continued to wear Turkish dress and a beard, which earned him the nickname 'The Turk' and brought him publicity and patronage all over Europe. He painted several portraits of himself thus attired; also famous is his portrait of himself as an old man (1773). Lipchitz Jacques (1891 —1973). Lithuanian-born sculptor who first studied architecture; he settled m Pans (1909), studying at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and then at the Acadenne Julian. He lived in N.Y. from 1941. His 1st i-man show was held in 1920. In Paris he met *Archipenko, *Gns and *Picasso, and his work from 191 5 to about 1925 is Cubist in character. Figures and heads are reduced to a simple block-like structure, whose flat planes are sometimes coloured (Man with Guitar, 1947). In the late 1920s his work underwent a change in form and content. The structural angularity gave way to a looser spatial play and the disciplined formal analysis was abandoned for a free use of evocative natural forms. The idol-like Vigure (1926—30) shows his affinity to the Parisian Surrealism of the 1930s, while Chant des voyelles (1931) or the Prometheus made for the International Exhibition (Paris, 1937) illustrate the concern of his mature style to appeal to the spectator through direct association with natural forms and emotions. He executed several important commissions while in N.Y. Lippi Pihppino (r. 1457—1504). Florentine painter, the son of Fra Filippo I., and almost certainly the pupil of Botticelli. His finest work is The Vision of Si Bernard. Madonna ami CJtild with Si Dominic and St Jerome and Portrait of a Young Man are also representative of the graceful style of Florentine painting before the revolution of Leonardo da Vinci. Karly frescoes by L. are found beside those of Masaccio and Masolmo in the Brancacci chapel, Carmine church, Florence. More important, and showing L.'s interest in classical art, are the cycle in the Strozzi chapel, S. Maria Novella, Florence. In his last years he worked in Rome, where he painted many panel pictures and the frescoes of the CarafFa chapel, S. Maria sopra Minerva. Lippi Fra Filippo (c 1406-69). Florentine painter. L. was received into a religious order as a child. He was certainly influenced by Masaccio, who painted his frescoes in the Carmine at the time when L. was growing up there. His 1st important work is the I'arquinia Madonna. His Barbadori Aharpiece shows an almost complete movement away from Masaccio. Its composition is complicated and makes much of decorative elements, and the whole spirit is one of grace and refinement. At Prato L. painted his most important cycle of frescoes. Of special interest are the 2 scenes St Stephen's Funeral and The Feast of Herod. In Prato he eloped with a nun; their son was the painter Filippino Lippi. Among many later paintings in which L.'s special grace is best seen are Madonna and Child and Madonna Adoring the Child in a Wood. The fresco cycle at Spoleto cathedral was unfinished at his death and was completed by others. Lippo Memmi Lismer Arthur (1885-1969). British-born Canadian painter, one of the *Group of Seven. Liss German Johann (Jan) (d. 1629) nicknamed 'Pan'. German painter of genre, biblical and mythological subjects who went to Italy (r. 1619) after being trained in the Netherlands. He settled in Venice and with Feti brought new vigour to Venetian painting of the early 17th с Lissitzky El  (Lazar) (1S90-1941). Russian pioneer of modern design in the fields of typography and exhibition design in the 1920s; he also transmitted Russian ideas to W. Europe. In 1919 he met *Ma!evich in Vitebsk; painted his 1st abstract paintings of startling originality which he called Pronns. His Story of Two Squares (1920) is considered the 1st example of modern typographical design; in 1921 he helped to organize and design the Russian exhibition in Berlin. Group G winch he founded in Berlin 111 1920, fusing *Suprematist and *Constructivist ideas, made contact with *De Stijl, leading architects and, through the other founder-member *Moholy-Nagy, with the *Bauhaus. lithography. A surface printing technique, invented (1798) by A. Senefelder, which depends on the fact that grease and water do not mix. The design is drawn with a greasy chalk on the 'stone' (originally a porous limestone, now always zinc plate), which is then wetted. The water runs off the chalked areas and the greasy ink will take on these areas but not on the damp stone. At first used simply for reproductions, I. developed into an independent art and was used by many icjth-c. artists notably *Daunner. Colour 1. was developed early but was pioneered as an art form by *Toulouse-Lautrec. Local colour. Term used in painting of the actual colour of an object in natural diffused light. Shadows or strong neighbouring colours may modify local colour. Lochner Stefan. 1 s;th-c. German painter mainly active in Cologne. He acted as a link between later Gothic and Early Renaissance painting. He assimilated the tradition of the harsh S. German and the courtly, lyrical Cologne schools. The Virgin of the Rose Harden combines charm with geometry; and his most famous work, the altarpiece in Cologne cathedral, combines the decorative with a monumental realism, influenced by Flemish art. Lockey Rowland (<\ 1 565-1616). British miniaturist, designer and goldsmith, apprenticed to ♦Milliard. Lomazzo Giovanni Paolo (1538-1600). Italian painter and influential art theoretician (Trattato dell' Arte de la Pillura, 1 584, and Idea del Tempio delta Pittura, 1590) whose writing was influenced by Neo-platomsm and who expressed the precepts of late *Mannensm. Lombard Lambert (1506-66). Flemish painter and architect who went to Rome in 1537 and on his return was influential as a Romanist. His pupils included Frans Floris and Goltzius. Lombardo Pietro (c. 1433-1515). Venetian sculptor and architect of prominence, largely responsible, among other work, for the design and interior sculptures of S. Maria dei Miracoli in Venice. He often worked with his sons Tullio and Antonio who also distinguished themselves as architects and sculptors in Venice and the Veneto area. London Group. An exhibiting society founded m J913 in opposition to the *New English Art Club, which was held to have become conventional and academic. H. Oilman was the 1st president, and both the *Camden Town painters and the *Vorticists exhibited. Between the wars V. *Bell, *Fry, *Grant and *Nash were among the exhibitors; in the postwar period such figurative painters as *Bomberg and Cliff Holden. Long Richard (1945— ). British artist. He began making geometric forms in the landscape in 1966 (circles of paper on grass, cut turf in a lawn, e.g. 'Гиг/ Circle, 1966). He works exclusively with natural materials in the landscape, or in a gallery space, the former being works that become integral parts of the landscape (e.g. Stones in Morocco - A Six Day Walk in the Atlas .Mountains, 1979) and which are realized on long solitary, ritualized walks (walking in circles, in lines, spirals or zigzags), many in remote and uninhabited parts of the world, e.g. a stone line 111 the Himalayas, a stone circle in the Andes, etc. These works are documented by photographs, e.g. Toolstone, a 136-mile (203-km) walk across England from the Irish Sea coast to the North Sea coast, placing five piles of stones along the way. Longhi Alessandro (1 733—1 X 1 3). Italian portrait painter and engraver, son of Pietro L., best known for his Conipendio dcllc Vite clc' Pittori Vene:iani ... (1762), an account of the lives of contemporary Venetian painters and an important source-book for the period. Longhi Pietro Falca called (1702—85). Venetian painter of the Rococo period famous for his delicate, slightly ironical paintings and sketches of Venetian life and manners. He was a pupil of G. M. Crespi at Bologna. He became a member of the Academy of Venice in 1766. Longo Robert (1953- ). U.S. artist associated with a group who arrived 111 N.Y. from Buffalo in 1977, among whom were Charlie Clough, Nancy Dwyer, *Sherman and Michael Zwack. L. has created works 111 several media on contemporary urban situations (e.g. Now llverybody, 1982—3); these works complement his ^performances. Long Richard Loos Adolf Lorenzetti Ambrogio and Lorenzetti Pietro. I4th-c. Sienese painters, probably pupils of Duccio; both almost certainly died in the plague of 1384. Both were greatly influenced by Giotto, their works leaning towards narrative rather than decorative qualities. Important paintings by Pietro include the altarpiece of the Carmine church (1329) and The Birth of the Virgin. Of his frescoes in the lower church of St Francis, Assisi, the 2 outstanding subjects are Madonna and Child and Descent from the Cross. In both frescoes everything else is subordinated to the creation of emotional intensity; in the Descent pain has distorted the figure of Christ but has not robbed it of grandeur. Ambrogio's best-known works are the frescoes on the theme Cjood and Hud Covernmeut in the town hall, Siena. Here he displays an imaginative genius for ordering the elements of a townscapc or a landscape. Other important panel paintings by Ambrogio are: 4 scenes from the Legend of S. Nicholas of Bari, Presentation in the Temple, a polyptych altarpiece and St Catherine of Alexandria. Lorenzetti Pietro Lorenzl Joseph Lorenzo di Credi. Lorenzo di *Credi Lorenzo Monaco. *Monaco lost wax. *cire perdue Lorentzon Waldemar Lotto Lorenzo (c. 1480—J 556). Venetian painter. L. trained probably under A. Vivanni in Venice, though most of his working life was spent in towns outside Venice — Treviso, Recanati, Rome (f. 1508), Bergamo (1513-28), Ancona and Loreto, where he died as a lay brother in a religious order. Although influenced at different periods by Giovanni Bellini, Titian and Palma Vecchio, L. remained a strongly individual painter. His frescoes in and near Bergamo and his altarpieces in towns where he worked are often marred by stylistic idiosyncrasies. However, his own unusual personality often gives him a rare insight into the personalities of his sitters when he turns to portraits, e.g. Man on a Terrace, the superbly alive Youth Before a White Damask Curtain, and Andrea Odoni. The St Jerome in the Wilderness and Si Nicholas of Bari in Clory are outstanding for their landscape backgrounds, while the mtarsias of S. Maria Maggiore, Bergamo, are notable for their rare decorative sense and draughtsmanship, e.g. Vision of T'lijah. Paintings such as The Annunciation and Christ Taking Leave of His Mother are close 111 style to Mannerism. Louis Le Vau Louis Morris (1912—62). U.S. painter who, with a group of Washington artists that included *Noland, was one of the most accomplished U.S. artists to have emerged in the 1950s, and was central to the development of *Color-field painting, deriving from *Frankenthaler's method of colour-staining raw canvas. L. was in the tradition of painting of *Motherwell, ♦Newman, ♦Pollock, *Reinhardt and ♦Still and was close to the influential critic *Grcenberg. His first stain-painting was made in 1954. He applied liquid paint to unstretched canvas, allowing it to flow down, but rarely to the bottom edge of the canvas, achieving an effect of colour veils in brilliant, curving colour shapes. In his later work 1.. used long, parallel strips of colour, their edges overlapping. Loutherbourg Philippe Jacques de Lowry L(awrence) S(tephen) (1887-1976). British painter. His characteristic subject was industrial N. England. The paintings, with strangely expressive matchstick figures, are in a faux-na'if 2-dimensional style. Lubok. I7th-c. Russian woodcut similar to the British chapbooks; at 1st religious, then political in subject, or often simply a means of circulating songs and dances among the peasants. The 1. had a considerable influence in forming ♦Larionov's and *Goncharova's 'pnmitivist' style (1908—12) so noticeable, e.g. in Goncharova's designs for Firebird. Lucas Sarah Lucas van Leyden (t. 1494—1533). Early Netherlandish painter and engraver. Taught by his father and C. Engclbrechtsz, L. was a celebrated engraver by the age of 15. Among his engravings, often valued second only to those of Purer, are litre Homo and Mohammed and the Monk. He met Diircr in the Netherlands in 1 <,2i and travelled in the Netherlands with Mabuse in 1527. Like IXirer, L. was very interested in bold technical experiments, perspective, detailed studies from nature, and character, if not oddity, in human bemgs. His colour is bright, his composition is restless, while serene and lovingly painted landscapes provide relief in such paintings as Las! Judgement, The Adoration of the Kings, Healing of the Blind Man and The Worship of the Golden Calf. Luini Bernardino (f. 1481 —1 532). Italian painter of the Milanese school, one of the most popular. His personal idiom was fresh and lighthcarted but after a series of frescoes 111 this style he turned to imitating Leonardo. This brought him success but deadened a delightful artistic talent. Luis de Morales Luks George (1867—1933). U.S. painter of low urban life, member of The ♦Eight and of the ♦Ashcan School of Social Realism. Luminism. Term used to describe certain U.S. I9th-c. landscape painters, e.g. ♦Lane, *Heade and *Kensett in certain of his works, as Lake George, 1869. Luinimsts painted small, intimate and quietist landscapes and 'waterscapes' whose horizontally imitated the format of vast panoramas, probably drawing on the Dutch tradition. In L. landscapes the sense of monu-mentality is accomplished through scale, not size, by emphasizing the horizon and reducing the size of the objects, trees, rocks, etc. Landscapes are painted with sharp realism transcended by the effect of clear yet atmospheric light which bathes the scene — often expanses of water — with sublime luminosity. In keeping with the American transcendentalist tradition of R. W. Emerson and H. D. Thoreau, a L. landscape aims to draw in the spectator, submerging and uniting him with nature. Lundquist Evert (1904— ). Swedish painter. At 1st a follower of ♦Munch, from early 1930s exerted considerable influence on Swedish painters, but was not recognized as his country's leading artist until 19SOS. His work is characterized by thick, rich impasto. Lundstrom Vilhelm (1893—1950). Danish Cubist painter and collagist whose work derives from Picasso and Archipenko. Lupertz  Markus (1941- ). German painter, sculptor and print maker, a contemporary of *Baselitz, *]'enck and *Kiefer, associated, despite his denials, with *Nco-Expressionism and the 1980s wave of new figuration in Germany. In fact, L.'s prolific work is m virtually all modernist styles: *Surrealist, ♦Cubist and ♦Abstract Expressionist, e.g. both his series of 'Style Paintings' (started in 1977 and continuing through the 1980s) and of 'Alice in Wonderland' (1980—1). Lurago Carlo Lurcatjean (1 892-1966). French painter and important tapestry designer largely responsible for reviving the art of tapestry in France and associated with the Aubusson works. Luttrell Psalter (c. 1340). Illuminated Psalter executed for Sir Geoffrey Luttrell of Irnham, Lincolnshire, who is portrayed in one of its miniatures with his wife and daughter-in-law. Though artistically it represents the East Anglian school in its decadence, its tinted marginal ills, which include scenes of contemporary life and labour, are of great value to the historian. Lysippus (//. late 4th c). Greek sculptor of the early Hellenistic period, official sculptor to Alexander the Great. His works combined idealization with movement and pathos. Land art. International art form that developed particularly from the late 1960s and early 1970s. It was part of a revolt against painting and sculpture and the anti-formalist current of the late 1960s that included CONCEPTUAL ART and Arte Povera. A number of mainly British and North American artists turned their attention to working directly with nature, notably Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Walter De Maria, Michael Heizer, Dennis Oppenheim, Robert Smithson and Richard Long. They created immense sculptures on the same scale as landscape itself, or exhibited written and photographic accounts of their excursions. With few exceptions, their works (also known as earthworks) are almost inaccessible, situated far from human settlements in deserts or abandoned areas. Their lifespan was brief: little by little they were destroyed by the elements and often by erosion, so that for posterity they exist only in the form of preparatory drawings, photographs or films. The works themselves were seen by only a small number of people and sometimes by only the artist. London Group. English exhibiting society founded in November 1913. On its foundation it absorbed many members of the CAMDEN TOWN GROUP and also incorporated the more avant-garde artists influenced by Cubism and Futurism, some of whom afterwards joined the Vorticist movement. Among the founder-members were David Bomberg, Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Jacob Epstein, Harold Gilman (the group’s first president until his death in 1919), Charles Ginner, Spencer Gore, Percy Wyndham Lewis, John Nash, Christopher Nevinson and Edward Wadsworth. The group was organized in opposition to the conservatism of the Royal Academy and the stagnation of the formerly radical New English Art Club. Though, as can be judged from the names of its founders, it had no homogeneous style or aesthetic, it acted as a focal point for the more progressive elements in British art at that time. Luminism. Term coined c. 1950 by the art historian John I. H. Baur to define a style in 19th-century American painting characterized by the realistic rendering of light and atmosphere. It was never a unified movement but rather an attempt by several painters working in the USA to understand the mysteries of nature through a precise, detailed rendering of the landscape. Luminism flourished c. 1850–75 but examples are found both earlier and later. Its principal practitioners were FITZ HUGH LANE, MARTIN JOHNSON HEADE, ALFRED THOMPSON BRICHER, DAVID JOHNSON and Francis Augustus Silva (1835–86). Several artists of the HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL, among them SANFORD ROBINSON GIFFORD, JOHN F. KENSETT and ALBERT BIERSTADT, painted works that could be considered examples of Luminism, as did such Canadian painters as LUCIUS R. O’BRIEN (e.g. Sunrise on the Saguenay, 1880; Ottawa, N.G.). Luminism. Term applied generally to Belgian Neo-Impressionism and more specifically to the work produced after 1904 by the movement’s exponents, in which they combined aspects of Realism, Impressionism and Neo-Impressionism; it was also applied from 1910 in the Netherlands to describe the late phase of Dutch Impressionism that is comparable stylistically with Fauvism. The term derives from Vie et Lumière, the name of a group formed by EMILE CLAUS and others. After Georges Seurat’s death in 1891 some Belgian Neo-Impressionists turned away from the painting movement in favour of decorative arts. When the avant-garde group Les XX was superseded in 1894 by the Libre Esthétique (1894–1914), Claus and other Belgian Impressionists sought a more national, often Flemish identity, enhanced by the nationalist tendency to pay homage to the century-old Dutch Flemish tradition of landscape painting, and by the Romantic–Realist style taught at Belgian academies and practised by the schools of Kalmthout, Tervuren and Dendermonde.