Nature and varieties
Shintō consists of the traditional Japanese religious practices as well
as the beliefs and life attitudes that are in accord with these
practices. Shintō is more readily observed in the social life of the
Japanese people and in their personal motivations than in a pattern of
formal belief or philosophy. It remains closely connected with the
Japanese value system and the Japanese people’s ways of thinking and
acting.
Shintō can be roughly classified into the following three major
types: Shrine Shintō, Sect Shintō, and Folk Shintō. Shrine Shintō (Jinja
Shintō), which has been in existence from the beginning of Japanese
history to the present day, constitutes a main current of Shintō
tradition. Shrine Shintō includes within its structure the now defunct
State Shintō (Kokka Shintō)—based on the total identity of religion and
state—and has close relations with the Japanese Imperial family. Sect
Shintō (Kyōha Shintō) is a relatively new movement consisting of 13
major sects that originated in Japan around the 19th century and of
several others that emerged after World War II. Each sect was organized
into a religious body by either a founder or a systematizer. Folk Shintō
(Minzoku Shintō) is an aspect of Japanese folk belief that is closely
connected with the other types of Shintō. It has no formal
organizational structure nor doctrinal formulation but is centred in the
veneration of small roadside images and in the agricultural rites of
rural families. These three types of Shintō are interrelated: Folk
Shintō exists as the substructure of Shintō faith, and a Sect Shintō
follower is usually also a parishioner (ujiko) of a particular Shintō
shrine.
History to 1900
Much remains unknown about religion in Japan during the Paleolithic and
Neolithic ages. It is unlikely, however, that the religion of these ages
has any direct connection with Shintō. Yayoi culture, which originated
in the northern area of the island of Kyushu in about the 3rd or 2nd
century bc, is directly related to later Japanese culture and hence to
Shintō. Among the primary Yayoi religious phenomena were agricultural
rites and shamanism.
History to 1900 » Early clan religion and ceremonies
In ancient times small states were gradually formed at various places.
By the middle of the 4th century ad, a nation with an ancestor of the
present Imperial Household as its head had probably been established.
The constituent unit of society at that time was the uji (clan or
family), and the head of each uji was in charge of worshiping the clan’s
ujigami—its particular tutelary or guardian deity. The prayer for good
harvest in spring and the harvest ceremony in autumn were two major
festivals honouring the ujigami. Divination, water purification, and
lustration (ceremonial purification), which are all mentioned in the
Japanese classics, became popular, and people started to build shrines
for their kami.
Ancient Shintō was polytheistic. People found kami in nature, which
ruled seas or mountains, as well as in outstanding men. They also
believed in kami of ideas such as growth, creation, and judgment. Though
each clan made the tutelary kami the core of its unity, such kami were
not necessarily the ancestral deities of the clan. Sometimes kami of
nature and kami of ideas were regarded as their tutelary kami.
Two different views of the world were present in ancient Shintō. One
was the three-dimensional view in which the Plain of High Heaven (Takama
no Hara, the kami’s world), Middle Land (Nakatsukuni, the present
world), and the Hades (Yomi no Kuni, the world after death) were
arranged in vertical order. The other view was a two-dimensional one in
which this world and the Perpetual Country (Tokoyo, a utopian place far
beyond the sea) existed in horizontal order. Though the
three-dimensional view of the world (which is also characteristic of
North Siberian and Mongolian shamanistic culture) became the
representative view observed in Japanese myths, the two-dimensional view
of the world (which is also present in Southeast Asian culture) was
dominant among the populace.
History to 1900 » Early Chinese influences on Shintō
Confucianism is believed to have reached Japan in the 5th century ad,
and by the 7th century it had spread among the people, together with
Chinese Taoism and yin-yang (harmony of two basic forces of nature)
philosophy. All of these stimulated the development of Shintō ethical
teachings. With the gradual centralization of political power, Shintō
began to develop as a national cult as well. Myths of various clans were
combined and reorganized into a pan-Japanese mythology with the Imperial
Household as its centre. The kami of the Imperial Household and the
tutelary kami of powerful clans became the kami of the whole nation and
people, and offerings were made by the state every year. Such practices
were systematized supposedly around the start of the Taika-era reforms
in 645. By the beginning of the 10th century, about 3,000 shrines
throughout Japan were receiving state offerings. As the power of the
central government declined, however, the system ceased to be effective,
and after the 13th century only a limited number of important shrines
continued to receive the Imperial offerings. Later, after the Meiji
Restoration in 1868, the old system was revived.
History to 1900 » The encounter with Buddhism
Buddhism was officially introduced into Japan in ad 552 and developed
gradually. In the 8th century there emerged tendencies to interpret
Shintō from a Buddhist viewpoint. Shintō kami were viewed as protectors
of Buddhism; hence shrines for tutelary kami were built within the
precincts of Buddhist temples. Kami were made equivalent to deva (the
Buddhist Sanskrit term for “gods”) who rank highest in the Realm of
Ignorance, according to Buddhist notions. Thus kami, like other
creatures, were said to be suffering because they were unable to escape
the endless cycle of transmigration; help was therefore offered to kami
in the form of Buddhist discipline. Buddhist temples were even built
within Shintō shrine precincts, and Buddhist sutras (scriptures) were
read in front of kami. By the late 8th century kami were thought to be
avatars, or incarnations, of buddhas and bodhisattvas. Bodhisattva names
were given to kami, and Buddhist statues were placed even in the inner
sanctuaries of Shintō shrines. In some cases, Buddhist priests were in
charge of the management of Shintō shrines.
From the beginning of the Kamakura period (1192–1333), theories of
Shintō-Buddhist amalgamation were formulated. The most important of the
syncretic schools to emerge were Ryōbu (Dual Aspect) Shintō and Sannō
(“King of the Mountain,” a common name of the guardian deity of Tendai
Buddhism) Shintō. According to Ryōbu Shintō—also called Shingon
Shintō—the two realms of the universe in Shingon Buddhist teachings
corresponded to the kami Amaterasu Ōmikami and Toyuke (Toyouke) Ōkami
enshrined at the Ise-daijingū (Grand Shrine of Ise, commonly called
Ise-jingū, or Ise Shrine) in Mie prefecture. The theorists of Sannō
Shintō—also called Tendai Shintō—interpreted the Tendai belief in the
central, or absolute, truth of the universe (i.e., the fundamental
buddha nature) as being equivalent to the Shintō concept that the sun
goddess Amaterasu was the source of the universe. These two sects
brought certain esoteric Buddhist rituals into Shintō. Buddhistic Shintō
was popular for several centuries and was influential until its
extinction at the Meiji Restoration.
History to 1900 » Shintō reaction against Buddhism
Ise, or Watarai, Shintō was the first theoretical school of
anti-Buddhistic Shintō in that it attempted to exclude Buddhist
accretions and also tried to formulate a pure Japanese version. Watarai
Shintō appeared in Ise during the 13th century as a reaction against the
Shintō-Buddhist amalgamation. Konton (chaos), or Kizen (non-being), was
the basic kami of the universe for Watarai Shintō and was regarded as
the basis of all beings, including the buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Purification, which had been practiced since the time of ancient Shintō,
was given much deeper spiritual meanings. Shōjiki (defined as
uprightness or righteousness) and prayers were emphasized as the means
by which to be united with kami.
Yoshida Shintō, a school in Kyōto that emerged during the 15th
century, inherited various aspects handed down from Watarai Shintō and
also showed some Taoist influence. The school’s doctrines were largely
the work of Yoshida Kanetomo (1435–1511). Its fundamental kami (the
source of all things and beings in the universe) was Taigen Sonjin (the
Great Exalted One). According to its teaching, if one is truly purified,
his heart can be the kami’s abode. The ideal of inner purification was a
mysterious state of mind in which one worshiped the kami that lived in
one’s own heart. Although the Watarai and Yoshida schools were thus free
of Buddhistic theories, the influence of Chinese thought was still
present.
History to 1900 » Neo-Confucian Shintō
In 1603 the Tokugawa shogunate was founded in Edo (Tokyo), and contact
between Shintō and Confucianism was resumed. Scholars tried to interpret
Shintō from the standpoint of Neo-Confucianism, emphasizing the unity of
Shintō and Confucian teachings. Schools emerged based on the teachings
of the Chinese philosophers Chu Hsi and Wang Yang-ming, and
Neo-Confucianism became an official subject of study for warriors.
Yoshikawa Koretaru (1616–94) and Yamazaki Ansai (1619–82) were two
representative scholars of Confucian Shintō. They added Neo-Confucian
interpretations to the traditional theories handed down from Watarai
Shintō, and each established a new school. The T’ai Chi (Supreme
Ultimate) concept of Neo-Confucianism was regarded as identical with the
first kami of the Nihon shoki, or Nihon-gi (“Chronicles of Japan”). One
of the characteristics of Yoshikawa’s theories was his emphasis on
political philosophy. Imperial virtues (wisdom, benevolence, and
courage), symbolized by the Sanshu no Shinki (Three Sacred Treasures),
and national ethics, such as loyalty and filial piety, constituted the
way to rule the state. Yamazaki Ansai further developed this tendency
and advocated both mystic pietism and ardent emperor worship.
History to 1900 » Fukko Shintō
Fukko (Restoration, or Revival) Shintō is one of the Kokugaku (National
Learning) movements that started toward the end of the 17th century.
Advocates of this school maintained that the norms of Shintō should not
be sought in Buddhist or Confucian interpretations but in the beliefs
and life-attitudes of their ancestors as clarified by philological study
of the Japanese classics. Motoori Norinaga (1730–1801) represented this
school. His emphasis was on the belief in musubi (the mystical power of
becoming or of creation), which had been popular in ancient Shintō, and
on a this-worldly view of life, which anticipated the eternal progress
of the world in ever-changing mutations. These beliefs, together with
the inculcation of respect for the Imperial line and the teaching of
absolute faith—according to which all problems beyond human capability
were turned over to kami—exercised great influence on modern Shintō
doctrines.
The most important successor of Motoori in the field of Shintō was
Hirata Atsutane (1776–1843), who showed the influence of Roman Catholic
teachings in some respects—derived from the writings of Jesuits in
China—by advancing the idea of a creator god and retribution for ethical
and religious failings in another world. These doctrines, however, were
not accepted into the main current of Shintō. Hirata developed the
philological studies started by Motoori and trained many capable
disciples. He also wrote prayers, worked out formulas for family cults
of tutelary kami and ancestors, and promoted Shintō practices. His
spirituality, reverence for the emperor, and desire to restore the
spirit of ancient Shintō enlisted many supporters and served as one of
the factors in bringing about the Meiji Restoration in 1868.
History to 1900 » Formation of Sect Shintō
During the latter part of the 19th century, new religious movements
emerged out of the social confusion and unrest of the people. What these
new movements taught differed widely: some were based on
mountain-worship groups, which were half Buddhist and half Shintō; some
placed emphasis on purification and ascetic practices; and some combined
Confucian and Shintō teachings. New religious movements—such as
Kurozumi-kyō (in this sense kyō means “religion,” or “religious body”),
founded by Kurozumi Munetada (1780–1850); Konkō-kyō (Konkō is the
religious name of the founder of this group and means, literally,
“golden light”) by Kawate Bunjirō (1814–83); and Tenri-kyō (tenri means
“divine reason or wisdom”) by Nakayama Miki (1798–1887)—were based
mostly on individual religious experiences and aimed at healing diseases
or spiritual salvation. These sectarian Shintō groups, numbering 13
during the Meiji period (1868–1912), were stimulated and influenced by
Restoration Shintō. They can be classified as follows:
1. Revival Shintō sects: Izumo-ōyashiro-kyō (or Taisha-kyō),
Shintō-taikyō, Shinri-kyō
2. Confucian sects: Shintō Shūsei-ha, Shintō Taisei-kyō
3. Purification sects: Shinshū-kyō, Misogi-kyō
4. Mountain worship sects: Jikkō-kyō, Fusō-kyō, On take-kyō (or
Mitake-kyō)
5. “Faith-healing” sects: Kurozumi-kyō, Konkō-kyō, Tenri-kyō
Shintō literature and mythology
Broadly speaking, Shintō has no founder. When the Japanese people and
Japanese culture became aware of themselves, Shintō was already there.
Nor has it any official scripture that can be compared to the Bible in
Christianity or to the Qurʾān in Islām. The Kojiki (“Records of Ancient
Matters”) and the Nihon-gi, or Nihon shoki (“Chronicles of Japan”), are
regarded in a sense as sacred books of Shintō. They were written in ad
712 and 720, respectively, and are compilations of the oral traditions
of ancient Shintō. But they are also books about the history,
topography, and literature of ancient Japan. It is possible to construct
Shintō doctrines from them by interpreting the myths and religious
practices they describe.
Stories partially similar to those found in Japanese mythology can be
found in the myths of Southeast Asia; and in the style of description in
Japanese myths some Chinese influence is detectable. The core of the
mythology, however, consists of tales about the sun goddess Amaterasu
Ōmikami, the ancestress of the Imperial Household, and tales of how her
direct descendants unified the Japanese people under their authority. In
the beginning, according to Japanese mythology, a certain number of kami
simply emerged, and a pair of kami, Izanagi and Izanami, gave birth to
the Japanese islands, as well as to the kami who became ancestors of the
various clans. Amaterasu, the ruler of Takama no Hara; the moon god
Tsukiyomi no Mikoto; and Susanoo (Susanowo) no Mikoto, the ruler of the
nether regions, were the most important among them. A descendant of
Amaterasu, Jimmu, is said to have become the first emperor of Japan.
Japanese mythology says that the Three Sacred Treasures (the mirror, the
sword, and the jewels), which are still the most revered symbols of the
Imperial Household, were first given by Amaterasu to her grandson. The
Inner Shrine (Naikū) of the Ise-jingū is dedicated to this ancestral
goddess and is the most venerated shrine in Shintō.
The Japanese classics also contain myths and legends concerning the
so-called 800 myriads of kami (yao-yorozu no kami; literally, yao equals
800 and yorozu 10,000). Some of them are the tutelary deities of clans
and later became the tutelary kami of their respective local
communities. Many others, however, are not enshrined in sanctuaries and
have no direct connections with the actual Shintō faith.
Doctrines » Concept of the sacred
At the core of Shintō are beliefs in the mysterious creating and
harmonizing power (musubi) of kami and in the truthful way or will
(makoto) of kami. The nature of kami cannot be fully explained in words,
because kami transcends the cognitive faculty of man. Devoted followers,
however, are able to understand kami through faith and usually recognize
various kami in polytheistic form.
Parishioners of a shrine believe in their tutelary kami as the source
of human life and existence. Each kami has a divine personality and
responds to truthful prayers. The kami also reveals makoto to people and
guides them to live in accordance with it. In traditional Japanese
thought, truth manifests itself in empirical existence and undergoes
transformation in infinite varieties in time and space. Makoto is not an
abstract ideology. It can be recognized every moment in every individual
thing in the encounter between man and kami.
In Shintō all the deities are said to cooperate with one another, and
life lived in accordance with a kami’s will is believed to produce a
mystical power that gains the protection, cooperation, and approval of
all the particular kami.
Doctrines » Precepts of truthfulness and purification
As the basic attitude toward life, Shintō emphasizes makoto no kokoro
(“heart of truth”), or magokoro (“true heart”), which is usually
translated as “sincerity, pure heart, uprightness.” This attitude
follows from the revelation of the truthfulness of kami in man. It is,
generally, the sincere attitude of a person in doing his best in the
work he has chosen or in his relationship with others, and the ultimate
source of such a life-attitude lies in man’s awareness of the divine.
Although Shintō ethics do not ignore individual moral virtues such as
loyalty, filial piety, love, faithfulness, and so forth, it is generally
considered more important to seek magokoro, which constitutes the
dynamic life-attitude that brings forth these virtues. In ancient
scriptures magokoro was interpreted as “bright and pure mind” or
“bright, pure, upright, and sincere mind.” Purification, both physical
and spiritual, is stressed even in contemporary Shintō to produce such a
state of mind. The achievement of this state of mind is necessary in
order to make communion between kami and man possible and to enable
individuals to accept the blessings of kami.
Doctrines » Nature of man and other beliefs
In Shintō it is commonly said that “man is kami’s child.” First, this
means that a person was given his life by kami and that his nature is
therefore sacred. Second, it means that daily life is made possible by
kami, and, accordingly, the personality and life of people are worthy of
respect. An individual must revere the basic human rights of everyone
(regardless of race, nationality, and other distinctions) as well as his
own. The concept of original sin is not found in Shintō. On the
contrary, man is considered to have a primarily divine nature. In
actuality, however, this sacred nature is seldom revealed in man.
Purification is considered symbolically to remove the dust and
impurities that cover one’s inner mind.
Shintō is described as a religion of tsunagari (“continuity or
communion”). The Japanese, while recognizing each man as an individual
personality, do not take him as a solitary being separated from others.
On the contrary, he is regarded as the bearer of a long, continuous
history that comes down from his ancestors and continues in his
descendants. He is also considered as a responsible constituent of
various social groups.
Motoori Norinaga stated that the human world keeps growing and
developing while continuously changing. Similarly, Japanese mythology
speaks of an eternity of history in the divine edict of Amaterasu. In
its view of history, Shintō adheres to the cyclical approach, according
to which there is a constant recurrence of historical patterns. Shintō
does not have the concept of the “last day”: there is no end of the
world or of history. One of the divine edicts of Amaterasu says:
This Reed-plain-1,500-autumns-fair-rice-ear Land is the region which
my descendants shall be lords of. Do thou, my August Grandchild, proceed
thither and govern it. Go! and may prosperity attend thy dynasty, and
may it, like Heaven and Earth, endure forever.
Modern Shintōists interpret this edict as revealing the eternal
development of history as well as the eternity of the dynasty. From the
viewpoint of finite individuals, Shintōists also stress naka-ima
(“middle present”), which repeatedly appears in the Imperial edicts of
the 8th century. According to this point of view, the present moment is
the very centre in the middle of all conceivable times. In order to
participate directly in the eternal development of the world, it is
required of Shintōists to live fully each moment of life, making it as
worthy as possible.
Historically, the ujigami of each local community played an important
role in combining and harmonizing different elements and powers. The
Imperial system, which has been supported by the Shintō political
philosophy, is an example of unity and harmony assuming the highest
cultural and social position in the nation. After the Meiji Restoration
(1868), Shintō was used as a means of spiritually unifying the people
during repeated wars. Since the end of World War II, the age-old desire
for peace has been reemphasized. The General Principles of Shintō Life
proclaimed by the Association of Shintō Shrines in 1956 has the
following article: “In accordance with the Emperor’s will, let us be
harmonious and peaceful, and pray for the nation’s development as well
as the world’s co-prosperity.”
Ritual practices and institutions
Shintō does not have a weekly religious service. People visit shrines at
their convenience. Some may go to the shrines on the 1st and 15th of
each month and on the occasions of rites or festivals (matsuri), which
take place several times a year. Devotees, however, may pay respect to
the shrine every morning.
Ritual practices and institutions » Rites of passage
Various Shintō rites of passage are observed in Japan. The first visit
of a newborn baby to the tutelary kami, which occurs 30 to 100 days
after birth, is to initiate the baby as a new adherent. The
Shichi-go-san (Seven-Five-Three) festival on November 15 is the occasion
for boys of five years and girls of three and seven years of age to
visit the shrine to give thanks for kami’s protection and to pray for
their healthy growth. January 15 is Adults’ Day. Youth in the village
used to join the local young men’s association on this day. At present
it is the commemoration day for those Japanese who have attained their
20th year. The Japanese usually have their wedding ceremonies in Shintō
style and pronounce their wedding vows to kami. Shintō funeral
ceremonies, however, are not popular. The majority of the Japanese are
Buddhist and Shintōist at the same time and have their funerals in
Buddhist style. A traditional Japanese house has two family altars: one,
Shintō, for their tutelary kami and the goddess Amaterasu Ōmikami, and
another, Buddhist, for the family ancestors. Pure Shintō families,
however, will have all ceremonies and services in Shintō style. There
are other Shintō matsuri concerning occupations or daily life, such as a
ceremony of purifying a building site or for setting up the framework
for a new building, a firing or purifying ceremony for the boilers in a
new factory, a completion ceremony for a construction works, or a
launching ceremony for a new ship.
Ritual practices and institutions » Varieties of festival, worship, and
prayer
Each Shintō shrine has several major festivals each year, including the
Spring Festival (Haru Matsuri, or Toshigoi-no-Matsuri; Prayer for Good
Harvest Festival), Autumn Festival (Aki Matsuri, or Niiname-sai; Harvest
Festival), an Annual Festival (Rei-sai), and the Divine Procession
(Shinkō-sai). The Divine Procession usually takes place on the day of
the Annual Festival, and miniature shrines (mikoshi) carried on the
shoulders are transported through the parish. The order of rituals at a
grand festival is usually as follows:
1. Purification rites (harae)—commonly held at a corner of the shrine
precincts before participants come into the shrine but sometimes held
within the shrine before beginning a ceremony.
2. Adoration—the chief priest and all the congregation bow to the
altar.
3. Opening of the door of the inner sanctuary (by the chief priest).
4. Presentation of food offerings—rice, sake wine, rice cakes, fish,
seaweed, vegetables, salt, water, etc., are offered but animal meat is
not, because of the taboo on shedding blood in the sacred area. In the
past cooked food was usually offered to kami, but nowadays uncooked food
is more often used. In accordance with this change, the idea of
entertaining kami changed to that of thanksgiving.
5. Prayer—the chief priest recites prayers (norito) modeled on
ancient Shintō prayers. These prayers were compiled in the early 10th
century and were based on the old belief that spoken words had spiritual
potency.
6. Sacred music and dance.
7. General offering—participants in the festival make symbolic
offerings using little branches of the evergreen sacred tree to which
strips of white paper are tied.
8. Taking offerings away.
9. Shutting the door of the inner sanctuary.
10. Final adoration.
11. Feast (naorai).
In the olden days naorai, a symbolic action in which participants
held communion with kami by having the same food offered to the deity,
came in the middle of the festival ceremony. The custom is still
observed sometimes at the Imperial Household and at some old shrines,
but it is more common to have communion with kami by drinking the
offered sake after the festival. Since World War II it has become
popular to have a brief sermon or speech before the feast.
Most Shintō festivals are observed generally in accordance with the
above-mentioned order. On such occasions as the Annual Festival, various
special rites may be held—for example, special water purification
(misogi) and confinement in shrines for devotional purposes (o-komori),
the procession of a sacred palanquin (o-miyuki) or of boats (funa
matsuri), a ceremonial feast (tōya matsuri), sumo wrestling, horseback
riding (kurabe-uma), archery (matoi), a lion dance (shishi mai), and a
rice-planting festival (o-taue matsuri).
Ritual practices and institutions » Types of shrines
A simple torii (gateway) stands at the entrance of the shrine precincts
(see Tōshō-gū illustration above). After proceeding on the main
approach, a visitor will come to an ablution basin where the hands are
washed and the mouth is rinsed. Usually he will make a small offering at
the oratory (haiden) and pray. Sometimes a visitor may ask the priest to
conduct rites of passage or to offer special prayers. The most important
shrine building is the main, or inner, sanctuary (honden), in which a
sacred symbol called shintai (“ kami body”) or mitama-shiro (“divine
spirit’s symbol”) is enshrined. The usual symbol is a mirror, but
sometimes it is a wooden image, a sword, or some other object. In any
case, it is carefully wrapped and placed in a container. It is forbidden
to see it: only the chief priest is allowed to enter inside the inner
sanctuary.
In the beginning Shintō had no shrine buildings. At each festival
people placed a tree symbol at a sacred site, or they built a temporary
shrine to invite kami. Later they began to construct permanent shrines
where kami were said to stay permanently. The honden of the Inner Shrine
at Ise and of Izumo-taisha (Grand Shrine of Izumo, in Shimane
prefecture) illustrate two representative archetypes of shrine
construction. The style of the former probably developed from that of a
storehouse for crops, especially for rice, and the style of the latter
from ancient house construction. In the course of time, variations of
shrine architecture were adopted and additional buildings were attached
in front of the honden. The honden and haiden are in many cases
connected by a hall of offering (heiden) where prayers are usually
recited. Large shrines also have a hall for liturgical dancing
(kaguraden).
Ritual practices and institutions » Other practices and institutions
Ujigami belief is the most popular form of Shintō in Japan. Originally
referring to the kami of an ancient clan, after the 13th century ujigami
was used in the sense of the tutelary kami of a local community, and all
the members in the community were that kami’s adherents (ujiko). Even
today a ujiko group consists of the majority of the residents in a given
community. A Shintōist, however, can believe at the same time in shrines
other than his own local shrine. It was only after World War II that
some large shrines also started to organize believers’ groups
(sūkeisha). The Believers’ Association of the Meiji Shrine, for
instance, has about 240,000 members living in and around Tokyo.
Kokugakuin University in Tokyo and Kōgakkan University at Ise are the
primary training centres for Shintō priests. Though any Shintōists who
go through certain training processes may be a priest (or a priestess),
many priests are, in fact, from the families of hereditary Shintō
priests.
Shintō religious arts
The Japanese from ancient times have valued emotional and aesthetic
intuitions in expressing and appreciating their religious experiences.
They found symbols of kami in natural beauty and the forces of nature,
and they developed explicitly religious poetry, architecture, and visual
arts. Shrine precincts are covered with green trees and are places of a
serene and solemn atmosphere, which is effective in calming worshipers’
minds. In the larger shrines, surrounded by expansive woods with
mountains as their background, a harmony of nature and architecture may
be achieved. Ise-jingū and Izumo-taisha still retain the ancient
architectural styles. After the 9th century an intricate form of shrine
construction was developed, adopting both Buddhist and Chinese
architectural styles and techniques. The curving roof style is one
example. Unpainted timbers are most frequently used, but, wherever
Buddhistic Shintō was popular, Chinese vermilion-lacquered shrines were
also built.
A torii always stands in front of a shrine. Various kinds of torii
can be seen in Japan, but their function is always the same: to divide
the sacred precincts from the secular area. A pair of sacred stone
animals called komainu (“Korean dogs”) or karajishi (“Chinese lions”)
are placed in front of a shrine. Originally they served to protect the
sacred buildings from evil and defilements. After the 9th century they
were used for ornamental purposes on ceremonial occasions at the
Imperial Court and later came to be used at various shrines generally.
Some of the stone lanterns (ishidōrō) used at the shrines are works of
art. The dedicator’s name and the year are inscribed on the lanterns to
inform viewers of the long tradition of faith and to urge them to
maintain it.
Compared with Buddhist statuary, visual representations of kami are
not outstanding either in their quality or quantity. Images of kami
were, in fact, not used in ancient Shintō until after the introduction
of Buddhism into Japan. These are placed in the innermost part of the
honden and are not the objects of direct worship by the people. Kami
icons are not worshiped at shrines.
The history of the shrine, its construction arrangements, and ritual
processions are recorded in picture scrolls (emakimono), and at the
older shrines there are many votive pictures (ema)—small wooden picture
plaques—that have been dedicated over the years by worshipers. Other
articles, such as specimens of calligraphy, sculpture, swords, and arms,
dedicated by the Imperial families, nobles, or feudal lords, are also
kept at shrines. Several hundred such items and shrine constructions
have been designated by the Japanese government as national treasures
and important cultural properties.
The traditional religious music and dance of shrines were performed
for the purpose of entertaining and appeasing kami, rather than to
praise them. Gagaku (literally, “elegant music”) involves both vocal and
instrumental music, specifically for wind, percussion, and stringed
instruments. Gagaku with dance is called bugaku. Gagaku was patronized
by the Imperial Household as court music and was much appreciated by the
upper classes from the 9th to the 11th century. Later some of the more
solemn and graceful pieces were used as ritualistic music by shrines and
temples. Today gagaku is widely performed at larger shrines. The
authentic tradition of gagaku has been transmitted by the Bureau of
Music (Gagaku-ryō, now called Gakubu) of the Imperial Household
(established in 701).
Apart from gagaku there are also kagura (a form of indigenous
religious music and dance based on blessing and purification), ta-asobi
(a New Year’s dance-pantomime of the cycle of rice cultivation), and
shishi mai, which developed originally from magico-religious dances and
are now danced for purification and as prayers. Matsuri-bayashi is a
gay, lively music with flutes and drums to accompany divine processions.
Some organizations of both Shrine and Sect Shintō have recently begun to
compose solemn religious songs to praise kami, making use of Western
musical forms. (See also East Asian Arts:Japanese visual arts and Shintō
music.)
Political and social roles
Until the end of World War II, Shintō was closely related to the state.
Offerings to kami were made every year by the government and the
Imperial Household, and prayers were offered for the safety of the state
and people. The matsuri-goto (the affairs of worship) offered by the
emperor from olden days included not only ceremonies for kami but also
for ordinary matters of state. “Shintō ceremonies and political affairs
are one and the same” was the motto of officials. Administrators were
required to have a religious conscience and develop political activities
with magokoro.
This tradition was maintained as an undercurrent throughout Japanese
history. Villagers prayed to the tutelary kami of the community for
their peace and welfare and promoted unity among themselves with village
festivals. After the Meiji Restoration, the government treated Shintō
like a state religion and revived the system of national shrines, which
dated from the 9th century or earlier. In order to propagate Revival
Shintō as the foundation of the national structure, they initiated the
“great promulgation movement” (1869–84) in which the emperor was
respected like kami. Although the Japanese constitution enacted in 1889
guaranteed freedom of faith under certain conditions, priority was, in
fact, given to Shintō. In elementary schools Shintō was taught to
children, and most of the national holidays were related to Shintō
festivals. Shintō of this nature was called State Shintō and came under
the control of the Bureau of Shrines in the Ministry of Home Affairs.
State Shintō was regarded as a state cult and a national ethic and
not as “a religion.” The free interpretation of its teachings by
individual Shintō priests was discouraged. Priests of the national
shrines were prohibited from preaching and presiding over Shintō
funerals. By 1945 there were 218 national and approximately 110,000
local shrines. The number of Sect Shintō groups was limited to 13 after
the organization of Tenri-kyō. Legally these 13 sects were treated as
general religious bodies, similar to Buddhism and Christianity, and came
under the supervision of the Ministry of Education.
After the end of World War II, the Supreme Commander for the Allied
Powers ordered the Japanese government to disestablish State Shintō. All
government financial support from public funds and all official
affiliation with Shintō and Shintō shrines were also discontinued. State
rites performed by the emperor were henceforth to be regarded as the
religious practices of the Imperial family. These rulings were carried
into the new Japanese constitution that was enacted in 1947. Presently,
Shrine Shintō is faced with two serious problems. The first is
determining how the traditional unifying function of Shintō can be
promoted in local communities or in the nation without interfering with
freedom of faith. The second is the necessity of harmonizing Shintō with
rapid modernization, especially in organizing believers and dealing with
human problems or the meaning of life.
The number of Shintō shrines has been decreasing since the beginning
of the Meiji era, in part because a municipal unification plan in 1889
called for the shrines of tutelary kami to be combined with the
municipality. At present, about 99 percent of the shrines belong to the
Association of Shintō Shrines, established in 1946, and most of the
others are independent or belong to small groups.
About 15 percent of 16,251 Sect Shintō churches were damaged during
World War II. Although they were not affected by the occupation policies
after the war, many sects, in fact, went through difficult years because
of unrest among the people and disunion within their own organizations.
In 1966 Tenri-kyō proclaimed that their belief was not Shintō, and in
1973 they withdrew from the federation of Sect Shintō groups. On the
other hand, numerous new religious bodies, including Shintōist groups,
have emerged since 1945. How to adequately reclassify Sect Shintō, when
combined with these new bodies, is a major concern of specialists on the
subject.
Place of Shintō in Japanese and world religion
Shintō together with Buddhism is closely related both culturally and
socially to the life of the Japanese people. Its relationships to other
religions in Japan are generally cooperative and harmonious. Most
Shintōists believe that cooperation between different religions could
contribute to world peace, but this is not to imply a facile religious
syncretism. Shintōists insist on maintaining their own characteristics
and inner depth while working toward the peaceful coexistence of human
beings.
Additional Reading
(Encyclopaedia Britannica)
