Zambia
 

Overview
Landlocked country, south-central Africa.

Area: 290,585 sq mi (752,612 sq km). Population (2008 est.): 11,670,000. Capital: Lusaka. The population is composed almost entirely of Bantu-speaking African ethnic groups. Languages: English (official); numerous local languages are also spoken. Religions: Christianity (Protestant, other Christians, Roman Catholic); also traditional beliefs, Islam. Currency: kwacha. The country consists of a high plateau through which the Zambezi (including Victoria Falls), Kafue, and Luangwa rivers flow. Lakes Mweru and Tanganyika touch Zambia’s northern boundaries, and Lake Bangweulu and the Bangweulu Swamps form extensive wetlands farther to the south. The Muchinga Mountains in the east and the ranges along the eastern border have the highest elevations in the country. There are forests of Zambezi teak in the southwest. Zambia’s economy depends on the production and export of copper. Other important mineral resources include lead, zinc, cobalt, coal, and gold. Agriculture also is important. There is some manufacturing. Zambia is a republic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is the president. Ancestors of the Tonga reached the region early in the 2nd millennium ce, but other peoples from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola reached the country only in the 17th–18th century. Portuguese trading missions were established early in the 18th century. Emissaries of Cecil Rhodes and the British South Africa Company concluded treaties with most of the Zambian chiefs during the 1890s. The company administered the region known as Northern Rhodesia until 1924, when it became a British protectorate. It was part of the Central African Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1953–63. In 1964 Northern Rhodesia became independent as the Republic of Zambia. A constitutional amendment enacted in 1991 allowed opposition parties.

Profile
Official name Republic of Zambia
Form of government multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [1581])
Head of state and government President
Capital Lusaka
Official language English
Official religion none2
Monetary unit Zambian kwacha (K)
Population estimate (2008) 11,670,000
Total area (sq mi) 290,585
Total area (sq km) 752,612
1Statutory number (including 8 nonelective seats).

2Zambia is a Christian nation per the preamble of a constitutional amendment.

Main

landlocked country in Africa. It is situated on a high plateau in south-central Africa and takes its name from the Zambezi River, which drains all but a small northern part of the country.

Large parts of the country are thinly populated. Much of population is concentrated in the country’s most developed area—known as the Line of Rail—which is served by the railway linking the Copperbelt with Lusaka, the capital, and with the border town of Livingstone.

Land
Zambia has a long land border on the west with Angola but is divided from its neighbours to the south by the Zambezi River. To the southwest is the thin projection of Namibian territory known as the Caprivi Strip, at the eastern end of which Zambia and three of its neighbours (Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe) appear to meet at a point—a “quadripoint”—although the precise nature of the meeting is contested. Man-made Lake Kariba now forms part of the river border with Zimbabwe. Zambia’s other neighbours include Mozambique to the southeast, Malawi to the east, and Tanzania to the northeast. The long border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo starts at Lake Tanganyika, crosses to Lake Mweru, and follows the Luapula River to the Pedicle, a wedge of Congolese territory that cuts deep into Zambia to give the country its distinctive butterfly shape. Westward from the Pedicle the frontier follows the Zambezi-Congo watershed to the Angolan border.

Relief
Most of Zambia forms part of the high plateau of this part of Africa (3,000 to 5,000 feet [900 to 1,500 metres] above sea level). Major relief features occur where river valleys and rifted troughs, some lake-filled, dissect its surface. Lake Tanganyika lies some 2,000 feet (600 metres) below the plateau, and the largest rift, that containing the Luangwa River, is a serious barrier to communications. The highest elevations occur in the east, where the Nyika Plateau on the Malawian border is generally over 6,000 feet (1,800 metres), rising to more than 7,000 feet (2,100 metres) in the Mafinga Hills. The general slope of the plateau is toward the southwest, although the drainage of the Zambezi turns eastward to the Indian Ocean. Over most of the country, ancient crystalline rocks are exposed, the product of prolonged erosion processes. In western Zambia they are overlain by younger sandy deposits, relicts of a once more-extensive Kalahari desert. In central and eastern parts of the country, downwarping of the plateau surface forms swamp- or lake-filled depressions (including Lake Bangweulu and the Lukanga Swamp); in more elevated regions, ridges and isolated hills made up of more-resistant rocks punctuate otherwise smooth skylines.

The oldest rocks in the country are volcanics and granites of the Bangweulu block in the northeast. These are 2.5 billion years and older and have been unaffected by orogenic processes since Precambrian times (about 3.8 billion to 540 million years ago). This old structure is partly covered by ancient sedimentary rocks, and together they constitute the basement complex. Sedimentaries of the Katangan Complex (about 620 million years old) are extensive in the central areas, and mineralization of these rocks is the basis of Zambia’s mining industry. Later sedimentary rocks of the Karoo (Karroo) System filled rifted troughs in the plateau surface, some of which, as in the Luangwa and middle Zambezi valleys, have been partially re-excavated. Coal seams occur in Karoo rocks to the north of Lake Kariba. These structural troughs are ancient features. Younger rifts in the north, part of the East African Rift System, are occupied by Lakes Mweru and Tanganyika. Karoo and older sedimentaries are also found in the west, buried under the predominantly sandy deposits of the Kalahari System.

Drainage
The continental divide—between the Congo River drainage, which flows to the Atlantic Ocean, and that of the Zambezi, which drains into the Indian Ocean—runs along the border shared by Zambia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo west of the Pedicle and then northeastward to the border with Tanzania. Both the Luapula (which drains the Bangweulu basin into Lake Mweru) and Lake Tanganyika are tributary to the Congo. The rest of the country lies within the Zambezi basin, the river itself rising in northwestern Zambia and circling through Angola before traversing the sandy plains of western Zambia. At Victoria Falls it drops some 300 feet (90 metres) into a milewide chasm at the head of the gorge leading down to Lake Kariba and the troughlike middle part of its valley. It has two main tributaries in Zambia. Rising on the Copperbelt, the Kafue River drains the Lukanga Swamp and Kafue Flats before an abrupt descent to the Zambezi. The Luangwa River, mostly confined within its rift trough, is quite different. The Bangweulu Swamps and the Kafue Flats are wetlands of international ecological importance.

Soils
Zambia is divided into three main agroecological regions based primarily upon annual precipitation; there is further variation within regions based on factors such as soil type, temperature, precipitation, and elevation. The first region includes portions of the southwestern corner of the country, as well as the country’s major valleys, such as the Gwembe, Zambezi, and Luangwa valleys. This region is the driest and most prone to drought, and its soils contain low levels of organic matter, low nutrient reserves, and high acidity levels. The second region spans the central part of the country and is divided into two subregions: the degraded plateau of the southeast, south-centre, and southwest and the Kalahari Sands and the Zambezi floodplain in the west. Soils of the Kalahari Sands have little agricultural potential and are mainly under woodland. The third region is situated in the northern part of the country; its soils tend to be highly weathered and leached, with a low pH.

Climate
Although Zambia lies within the tropics, its climate is modified by the altitude of the country and is generally favourable to human settlement and comfort. The marked seasonal pattern of precipitation is caused by the north and south movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), which shifts with the Sun. In January the ITCZ is in its southernmost position, and the rainy season is at its peak; by June it has moved north, and the weather is dry. Summer rains reduce the high temperatures that might be expected at this time.

Precipitation (concentrated in just five months) varies according to agroecological region but generally comes in storms with heavy raindrops that lead to a hard soil surface and surface erosion. The driest region receives annual precipitation of less than 30 inches (800 mm), while precipitation in the wettest region normally exceeds 40 inches (1,000 mm); precipitation occasionally exceeds 55 inches (1,400 mm) in the northeast.

Temperature is modified by elevation, with the highest mean daily maximum temperatures occurring in the Luangwa valley and the southwest. The coolest area overall is the high Nyika plateau, in the northeast on the border with Malawi. During the cold months (June and July), the area west of the Line of Rail is coolest, with mean minimum temperatures mostly below the mid-40s F (about 7 °C). Sesheke, in the southwest, has frost on an average of 10 days per year.

Average annual hours of sunshine range from more than 3,000 in the southwest to less than 2,600 on the eastern border. Winds are predominantly easterly-southeasterly, although in the rainy season winds blow from the northwest and north. Wind speeds are rarely strong enough to cause damage.

Although the major contrast is between the rainy season and the drier months, three seasons may be identified. The warm wet season lasts from November until April, when temperatures range between the high 60s and low 80s F (low to mid-20s C) and during which time the country receives the vast majority of its annual precipitation. The movement into Zambia of the moist Congo air mass from the northwest heralds the start of the rains, in the north usually in early November and toward the end of the month around Lusaka. The change from dry to wet conditions is transitional rather than abrupt. December and January are the wettest months. Cloud cover lowers maximum temperatures but also limits radiative heat loss at night, so that minimum temperatures are kept relatively high. Relative humidity values are high, typically 95 percent in early morning but declining to 60–70 percent by midafternoon. Sunshine is surprisingly frequent; Lusaka averages six hours of sunshine per day in January. Precipitation declines rapidly in April with the northward movement of the ITCZ.

The cool dry season lasts from May until August, with maximum temperatures ranging from the high 50s F (mid-10s C) to the low 80s F (mid-20s C); morning and evening temperatures may be significantly lower. The Sun is overhead in the Northern Hemisphere, so temperatures are low; July is usually the coldest month. Clear skies allow maximum heat radiation and result in especially low temperatures on calm nights, with occasional ground frost occurring in sheltered valleys.

The hot dry season lasts from September until October, when maximum temperatures range from the low 80s F (mid-20s C) to the mid-90s F (mid-30s C). This is a period of rapidly rising temperatures; just two months separate July, the coldest month, and October, usually the hottest (although if the rains are delayed November can be hotter). Usually by mid-October cooler oceanic air moves in, leading to increasing humidity and cloud formation. High temperatures and increasing humidity make this one of the least comfortable times of the year, although the first rains wash away dry-season dust.

Plant and animal life
On the plateau, miombo woodland is characteristic: a semicontinuous tree cover dominated by small leguminous trees of the Brachystegia and Julbernardia genera but with a significant grassy undergrowth. Burning of the grasses in the dry season causes the trees to develop a corky, fire-resistant bark. Mopane woodland, in which Colophospermum mopane dominates but in which the baobab is distinctive, occurs in the drier and hotter valleys of the Zambezi in the south and in the Luangwa valley. Zambezi teak (Baikiea plurijuga) occurs in the southern fringe of the area covered by the Kalahari Sands. Mukwa (Pterocarpus angolensis), a good furniture timber, is found in the Lake Bangweulu area. More than one-tenth of the country has been set aside as forest reserve or protected forest areas; in all, some two-fifths of the country’s land is under protection.

Where there is seasonal flooding—in swamps and on floodplains, notably in the Bangweulu and Lukanga regions, in the upper Zambezi, and on the Kafue Flats—open grasslands are characteristic. On the plateau the tree cover is broken by grass-covered dambos: shallow saucer-shaped valleys, often lacking a surface watercourse.

The variety of Zambia’s mammals is notable, and there are large concentrations on the major floodplains, particularly in the national parks of the Luangwa and Kafue valleys. Depletion of wildlife has occurred because of the spread of human activities outside the parks, while poaching is a serious threat within. The illegal trade in rhino horn has been responsible for the virtual elimination of the rhinoceros from Zambia, and poaching of elephants for their tusks has greatly reduced their numbers, despite government measures to deter the practice. There is a large range of smaller mammals and varied and numerous birdlife. The fish eagle, Zambia’s national emblem, is common on large stretches of open water.

Reptiles include crocodiles, tortoises, terrapins, a variety of lizards, and many poisonous and nonpoisonous snakes. Insects of most orders are prevalent. Termite mounds, often large and sometimes pinnacled, are a landscape feature of some areas and can hinder farming operations.

Wildlife is protected in a number of national parks and game-management areas, which together constitute some one-third of the country. Some national parks have tourist facilities; these include South and North Luangwa, Kafue, Lochinvar, Blue Lagoon, Sumbu, Nyika, and Mosi-oa-Tunya. Kafue, the oldest and largest of these parks (8,650 square miles [22,400 square km]), is on the plateau and has generally low game concentrations, although it is noted for the variety of species of antelope it hosts. Lake Itezhi-Tezhi, a reservoir behind a regulating dam on the Kafue, has flooded part of the park. South Luangwa (3,500 square miles [9,100 square km]) has one of Africa’s largest (but declining) elephant concentrations. North Luangwa offers true wilderness adventure: walking safaris. Thornicroft’s giraffe is unique to the Luangwa valley. The other parks are much smaller. Lochinvar, on the Kafue Flats, is of particular interest to bird-watchers, with more than 400 species recorded. The Kafue lechwe is unique to the flats. The Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park protects the environs of Victoria Falls and is recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage site. Nyika National Park was established to preserve remnant patches of montane forest. Sumbu, on the shores of Lake Tanganyika, is renowned for easy sightings of the rare sitatunga, a type of aquatic antelope.

People
Ethnic and linguistic composition
Most Zambians speak Bantu languages of the Niger-Congo language family and are descended from farming and metal-using peoples who settled in the region over the past 2,000 years. Cultural traditions in the northeast and northwest indicate influences and migrations from the upper Congo basin. There are also some descendants of hunters and gatherers who seem to have been pushed back into the Kalahari, the Bangweulu and Lukanga swamps, and the Kafue Flats. In the 19th century invaders arrived from the south: the Ngoni settled in the east, while the Kololo briefly ruled the Lozi in the upper Zambezi valley. Europeans began to enter in significant numbers in the late 19th century.

Although most Zambians are of Bantu origin, the complex patterns of immigration have produced wide linguistic and cultural variety. The Bemba group is the most widespread, accounting for more than one-fifth of the population, and is distributed in the north-central part of the country, in the Northern, Luapula, and Copperbelt provinces. The Nyanja (also known as Chewa) and Tonga language groups are also important, and each accounts for more than one-tenth of the population. Nyanja languages are spoken in the Eastern and Central provinces, while Tonga languages are spoken mainly in the Southern and Western provinces.

There is still some relationship between the distribution of major ethnic groups and the administrative division of the country into its predominantly rural provinces and the provinces along the Line of Rail. Western Province is dominated by the Lozi, who live on and about the floodplain of the upper Zambezi. Lozi society is markedly centralized under the leadership of a king, the litunga; the community continues to nurture separatist aspirations.

In North-Western Province, adjoining the Angolan and Congolese borders, there is no single dominant group; the peoples there include the southern Lunda and the Luvale, Chokwe, Luchazi, Mbunda, Ndembu, and Kaonde.

Southern Province is home to the Ila-Tonga peoples, of which 12 separate groups speaking closely related dialects may be identified. Settlement is characterized by dispersed homesteads. Traditionally cattle-owning, they occupy an area of above-average soil fertility through which the railway was built, encouraging early involvement in commercial agriculture.

Northern Province is dominated by the Bemba, who formed an extensive kingdom in the 19th century. The province was a major source of mine labour, and Bemba has become the lingua franca of the Copperbelt as well as the most widely spoken language in the country. Most languages in the northeast of the province are closely related to languages in Tanzania and Malawi.

Luapula Province extends along the river of that name from Lake Bangweulu to Lake Mweru and is inhabited by a number of Bemba-speaking but culturally distinct peoples (among them the Lunda, Kabende, Aushi, and Chishinga). Fishing is the major economic activity. In the 19th century the valley was dominated by the Lunda kingdom of Kazembe (see Lunda empire).

Eastern Province is the home of the Nsenga, Chewa, Kunda, and Ngoni. The last group invaded from the south during the 19th century but took the language of the peoples that they raided. Agriculture is the dominant activity, and the primary language is Nyanja, which is also spoken in Malawi and is the lingua franca in Lusaka, to which many migrants from this area have moved.

The ethnic boundary between the Ila-Tonga and the Lala-Lamba groups runs approximately through Central Province, with the Lenje-Soli peoples occupying a buffer area between the two. The Lenje are related to the Ila-Tonga, and the Soli to the Lala-Lamba, who, in turn, are connected with the Kaonde of North-Western Province.

Copperbelt (formerly Western) Province is the location of the mining industry. The population is composed of people from all parts of Zambia, as well as some from neighbouring countries. This is true also of Lusaka Province, a small province created around the capital from the southern part of Central Province in 1976.

The non-Bantu population tends to be located in the towns and the commercial farming community and is concentrated in areas that coincide with the Line of Rail. This group includes Europeans and people of European descent, some holding Zambian citizenship. Many left after Zambia gained independence in 1964, and their numbers steadily declined from about 40,000 in the late 1960s to about 2,500 in the early 2000s. The decline has been partly due to the process of nationalization and Zambianization of such key industries as mining, in which regulations were put in place to restrict the employment and residence of nonnationals. By contrast, the number of Asians in Zambia has risen since independence. The majority are engaged in the retail trade, and they are concentrated in the major towns, because in 1970 non-Zambians were prohibited from trading in rural areas. Most are Indians, mainly Gujarati speakers from western India.

Numerous languages or dialects have been identified in Zambia. There are seven official vernacular languages: Bemba, Nyanja, Lozi, Tonga, Luvale, Lunda, and Kaonde, the latter three being languages of North-Western Province. English is the official language of government and is used for education, commerce, and law.

Religion
Zambia is predominantly a Christian country, although few have totally abandoned all aspects of traditional belief systems. The first Christian missions arrived before colonial rule, and the growth of adherents was greatly assisted by the schools that they established. The Roman Catholic Church is today the largest single denomination, but Anglicans, Baptists, Methodists, and others are well established. The growth of fundamentalist churches has been particularly noticeable since independence, and the government of the newly independent country soon ran into conflict with two of these, the Jehovah’s Witnesses and the Lumpa church. The Asian community is predominantly Hindu, the rest mainly Muslim. There are relatively few Muslims among the African population.

Settlement patterns
The proportion of the population living in urban centres rose steadily for much of the 20th century. More than one-tenth of the population lives in the Copperbelt to the north of the capital, but the greatest concentration of people is in Lusaka itself, where some one-tenth of the population resides. Life within urban centres is not homogeneous and has become increasingly demarcated along class lines. Many of those who live in the shanties that encircle the cities have crafted a living out of very little. There are numerous cottage industries, and walking salespersons offering a variety of goods are visible on the streets. Other vendors prefer to set up shop in the network of lively markets, which are colourful and fragrant with the smell of cooking food and serve as social meeting places as well as sites of commerce.

For others, city life has a markedly different flavour; the wealthier members of society—often the inhabitants of lower-density residential areas known as mayadi—enjoy the benefits of globalization and advances in technology and communications. Zambia’s transition to a free-market economy led to an increase in the trappings of modernity, and the availability of supermarket chains, furniture and electronics stores, and other establishments has greatly expanded. However, these goods and amenities continue to be accessible only to expatriates and the small proportion of locals who can afford to shop in such places.

Because of a trend of movement toward urban centres in Zambia, the country’s rural areas have undergone significant changes. As many rural-to-urban migrants are male, women frequently remain behind in villages to manage the household and support their families. Most rural Zambians provide for themselves through agricultural activity such as farming or herding and may participate in craftwork on a seasonal basis to supplement their sustenance; for some, such as subsistence farmers, it is the only means of generating cash. Housing materials and styles in rural areas vary by ethnic group; building mediums may include mud and thatch, brick, or other materials.

Demographic trends
Zambia’s population is small relative to the country’s area, and its growth rate is lower than that of many of its neighbours in sub-Saharan Africa. Life expectancy in Zambia—less than 40 years—is one of the lowest in the world. The country has a relatively young population, with more than two-fifths under age 16. Zambia’s birth rate is significantly higher than the world average, and its death rate is among the highest in the world. Zambia’s low life expectancy and high death rate are attributable in part to the prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the country.

Well over half the population lives in the areas along the Line of Rail. The movement of people from the rural areas into the towns was particularly marked after independence because of the removal of colonial restrictions on movement from rural to urban areas. Since that time rural-to-urban migration has been the predominant form of movement, and in the early 2000s more than one-third of the population was urban. Government efforts to reverse the flow have had only limited success.

Economy
Zambia’s economy is heavily dependent on mining, in particular the mining of copper. Reserves of copper ore at some mines are becoming depleted, costs of production have increased, and income has fluctuated depending on the price of copper on the world market, accentuating the need for Zambia to broaden its economic base. Agriculture is relatively poorly developed, however, and major investment in the manufacturing industry did not take place until after independence. State involvement in all aspects of the economy, an early feature of independent Zambia, created a highly centralized and bureaucratic economic structure. Changes in the political structure of the country in the early 1990s were accompanied by efforts to increase private investment and involvement, particularly in the industrial sector, which continued into the 21st century.

Shortly after independence, Zambia embarked on a program of national development planning—the Transitional Development Plan—preceding the First National Development Plan of 1966–71. This later plan, which provided for major investment in infrastructure and manufacturing, was largely implemented and generally successful (which was not true of subsequent plans).

A major switch in the structure of the country’s economy came with the Mulungushi Reforms of April 1968, in which the government declared its intention to acquire an equity holding (usually 51 percent or more) in a number of key foreign-owned firms, to be controlled by the Industrial Development Corporation (INDECO). By January 1970 a majority holding had been acquired in the Zambian operations of the two major foreign mining corporations, the Anglo American Corporation and the Rhodesia Selection Trust (RST), which became the Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines (NCCM) and Roan Consolidated Mines (RCM), respectively. A new parastatal body, the Mining Development Corporation (MINDECO), was created. Government control was later extended to insurance companies and building societies, which were placed within a new parastatal body, the Finance and Development Corporation (FINDECO). The banks successfully resisted takeover. INDECO, MINDECO, and FINDECO were brought together in 1971 under an omnibus parastatal, the Zambia Industrial and Mining Corporation (ZIMCO), to create one of the largest companies in sub-Saharan Africa. In 1973 management contracts under which the day-to-day operations of the mines had been carried out by Anglo American and RST were ended. In 1982 NCCM and RCM were merged into the giant Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Ltd.

Programs of nationalization, particularly of the mining industry, were ill-timed. The massive increase in the price of oil in 1973 (which greatly inflated the import bill) was followed by a slump in copper prices in 1975 and a diminution of export earnings. The price of copper, which in 1973 accounted for the vast majority of all export earnings, halved in value on the world market in 1975. By 1976 there was a balance-of-payments crisis, and the country became massively indebted to the International Monetary Fund (IMF). There was little hope of putting the proposals of the Third National Development Plan (1978–83) into effect: crisis management, not long-term planning, was the reality.

By the mid-1980s Zambia had become one of the most indebted nations in the world relative to its gross domestic product (GDP). As the price for its continuing support, the IMF was able to insist that the Zambian government introduce programs aimed at stabilizing the economy and restructuring to reduce dependence on copper. Measures included ending price controls, currency devaluation, reductions in government expenditure, the ending of subsidies on food and fertilizer, and increased prices for farm produce. The removal of food subsidies caused massive increases in the price of basic foodstuffs and led to rioting. Unable to cope with internal opposition to the new policies, Zambia broke with the IMF in May 1987, introducing its own New Economic Recovery Programme in 1988; it subsequently moved toward a new understanding with the IMF in 1989. In a major policy turnabout in 1990, reflecting events in eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, the intention to partially privatize the parastatals was announced. The new government of the Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD) led by Frederick Chiluba, who came into power in November 1991, promised to liberate the economy and introduce a free-market system. Under Chiluba, Zambia embarked upon an aggressive scheme of privatization, largely in response to pressure from the IMF and the World Bank. With the passing of the Privatization Act in 1992, the Zambian Privatization Agency (later the Zambia Development Agency) was created to convert state-owned enterprises to private ownership. ZIMCO was closed in March 1995. Efforts to privatize the mines, the mainstay of the economy, were problematic given the size of the conglomerate and the potential for loss of control to powerful foreign investors; nevertheless, progress was made, and efforts toward privatization continued into the 21st century.

As a landlocked country, Zambia has economic policy goals that include continued cooperation with its neighbours through the Southern African Development Community and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, in addition to its traditional ties with the Commonwealth and the United Nations (UN). Zambia is also a member of the African Union. Zambia continues to receive development assistance from a number of countries, the World Bank, and the IMF.

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing
Agriculture
Agricultural pursuits employ the majority of the country’s labour force. Zambia has a vast land and natural resource base, although only about one-sixth of the country’s arable land is under cultivation. Farms range in size from household farms to large commercial farms. Smallholder farmers use hand hoes and few external inputs, and they mainly produce food crops such as corn (maize), sorghum, millet, cassava (manioc), and groundnuts (peanuts). Much of Zambia’s cotton, which is used for the local textile industry as well as for export, is also grown by smallholders. Medium and large commercial farms benefit from improved seed, fertilizer, and animal draft power. The country’s large-scale commercial farms are mainly located along the Line of Rail and are predominately owned and operated by European settlers and their descendants, a pattern that dates back to colonial days when African males were recruited to work the copper mines while European settlers were brought in to work the fields. The settlers were given fertile land along the Line of Rail while Africans were resettled in less fertile areas, a situation that has changed to some degree because of land reform programs.

Corn is a staple food crop and accounts for the largest proportion of planted area on Zambian farms. The country’s high rate of urbanization during much of the post-independence era has increased the national demand for corn, the production of which has fluctuated and grown at a slower pace relative to demand. For many years the growth of corn was promoted by the use of hybrid varieties and subsidized fertilizers. It began to displace staples such as cassava, sorghum, and millet in areas not naturally suited to it, such as the higher-precipitation areas of the north. The removal of fertilizer subsidies reversed that trend; in the north, cassava, the traditional staple, is regaining importance. Zambia’s poor road infrastructure makes it difficult for rural farmers to help supply the needs of the urban population. At times, domestic corn has rotted in the rural areas even as it was being imported from other countries. Levels of commercialization are relatively low, and near-subsistence farming is widespread.

On the poorer soils of the wetter north and northeast, cultivation is mainly of a shifting variety called chitemene, whereby trees (or their branches) are cut and then piled in the centre of the clearing for burning, the crop being planted in the ashes. Expanded rural populations, however, growing because of improved health care and nutrition, have in turn led farmers to let their fields lie fallow for a shorter period of time before recultivation, and thus the effectiveness of the chitemene system has suffered. As a result, there has been a resurgence of the practice of mound cultivation. A heap of grasses and other vegetation is covered in soil to form a mound that measures approximately 3 feet (1 metre) in diameter by 3 feet in height; fertile soil is produced by the decay of the vegetation within the mound, which is later flattened and the enriched soil spread among important crops. Over much of the rest of the country, semipermanent hoe cultivation predominates; in swamp and lakeshore areas, it is combined with fishing.

Irrigated agriculture is increasingly important. Started in 1966, the first successful scheme was at Nakambala, on the south side of the Kafue Flats, where the Zambia Sugar Company has more than 25,000 acres (101,000 hectares) under sugarcane. Their refinery also serves nearby smallholder cane-growing projects. Zambia provides for its own needs and exports sugar. At Mpongwe, south of Luanshya, a major irrigation scheme produces wheat and coffee. Kasama in the northeast is the location of two arabica coffee schemes, and there is a tea estate at Kawambwa in the far north. Wheat and cotton are grown at Sinazongwe and Sinazeze in the Gwembe (middle Zambezi) valley, using water from Lake Kariba. Cotton cultivation was encouraged by the construction of textile mills, first at Kafue and later at Kabwe.

Soil erosion is a perennial concern in the heavily settled areas of the south and east, while the middle Zambezi valley and the southwest are the worst affected in drought years.

Cattle are found only in the drier, tsetse-free parts of the country with open woodland vegetation: mainly the Tonga plateau, the Kafue Flats, and the floodplain of the upper Zambezi (tsetse flies are prevalent along much of the middle Zambezi). Cattle that form part of traditional farming systems often do not enter the commercial market, which is supplied mainly by larger herds kept on commercial farms, especially near Lusaka and in the south.

Forestry
Some 26,000 square miles (67,300 square km) of Zambia are classified as forest reserves, although the greater part of the country is wooded but not protected in this way. The main commercial timber areas are on the Copperbelt, where there have been plantings of exotic softwoods to supply the needs of the mining industry, and in the southwest, where there are extensive areas of Zambezi teak. A mill at Mulobezi, which supplies timber products, is linked to Livingstone by a light railway. A major concern is forest destruction due to demands for charcoal; in the towns, charcoal is the most popular cooking fuel. The government has supported attempts to introduce energy-efficient charcoal stoves.

Fishing
Zambia has relatively rich fisheries based on its many lakes, swamps, and seasonally inundated floodplains. Of particular importance is the Luapula valley, which supplies the Copperbelt. Lake Tanganyika is famous for Nile perch and kapenta, a deep-feeding freshwater sardine caught at night using special lamps to direct its movements. Lusaka is supplied mainly from the Kafue Flats and the Lukanga Swamp. Of lesser importance is the fishery on the upper Zambezi. There has been a revival of fishing on Lake Kariba, interrupted by the conflict with Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) during the 1970s. There is a fishery of kapenta, which had been introduced successfully from Lake Tanganyika, although the fishery is better established in Zimbabwe, where fishing was not stopped by the war. Most fish is smoked before being trucked to market.

Resources and power
Copper was the basis of Zambia’s prosperity in the first decade of independence. In the decades that followed, the need for diversification was underscored by the fluctuation of world copper prices, the reduction of market demand due to the appearance of alternatives such as optical glass fibre, and the increased costs associated with the exhaustion of reserves in existing mining areas. Nevertheless, in the early 2000s, metalliferous ores and scrap remained the country’s most important export. Lead and zinc mining at Kabwe began in 1906, predating the large-scale mining of copper. Underground mining at Kabwe has practically ended, although reworking of mine dumps has prolonged activity at the mine.

Other minerals worked in Zambia include cobalt, gold, and silver, all of which occur in association with copper. Iron ore is found near Mumbwa. There is an increasing awareness of the value of Zambia’s gemstones. Zambia’s emerald deposits are among the world’s largest; the gem is mined near Luanshya and Ndola and cut and polished locally. Amethyst, aquamarine, and tourmaline are also mined. Large deposits of cosmetic-grade talc are found near Ndola and Lusaka. Limestone is widely found on the Copperbelt and in the Lusaka district and is quarried for stone, lime, and cement; associated with it are workable occurrences of marble.

The country once relied on coal carried by rail from Hwange in Rhodesia, but, following Rhodesia’s Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) in 1965, Zambia developed relatively poor-grade coal deposits at Maamba in the Gwembe area, adjacent to Lake Kariba. Although there has been extensive prospecting for oil in the Karoo sediments of the middle Zambezi, the Luangwa, and the southwest, the search has so far been unsuccessful. Nor has prospecting for uranium discovered workable quantities of the ore.

Hydropower represents Zambia’s richest energy source. Large rivers descending from the plateau into the rifted troughs of the Zambezi provide scope for hydropower development, and a major gorge on the middle Zambezi enabled it to be dammed to form Lake Kariba. The first power station at Kariba was built on the south side of the river, but a 600-megawatt station on the Zambian side was completed in 1977, shortly after the completion of a 900-megawatt station in the Kafue Gorge, south of Lusaka. There is an earlier power station at Victoria Falls. Electricity distribution from Kariba extends north to the Copperbelt and southward across Zimbabwe. There are also links with the Democratic Republic of the Congo and peripheral areas of Botswana and Namibia. Efforts have been made to extend the national grid in order to provide electricity to rural Zambians, but many in both rural and urban areas continue to rely on wood and coal for their domestic energy needs.

Manufacturing
Manufacturing consistently accounted for about one-tenth of Zambia’s GDP from the 1990s into the early 2000s. The Copperbelt is the country’s industrial heart, the focus of mining and ancillary industries. Local people have worked the ores for many centuries, but commercial mining essentially dates back to the 1920s. The ores occur at depth in a synclinal structure so that deep-shaft mining is normal, although there has been some opencut mining. Exhaustion of reserves and the increasing costs of mining led to the closure of the Kansanshi and Chambishi mines in the mid-1980s, and rationalization of operations in an attempt to contain costs has closed down some refining and ancillary plants. There is much mining-related industrial activity on the Copperbelt, and a major downturn in mining activity would have severe repercussions for the area as a whole. The other major mining centre is at Kabwe, where the lead and zinc mine has been virtually exhausted. Mining elsewhere, with the exception of coal at Maambwe, is mainly small-scale.

The manufacturing industry was poorly developed before independence, as most investment in this sector during the federal period was made in what is now Zimbabwe. However, during Zambia’s First National Development Plan major investment was made in manufacturing, particularly import substitution. The manufacturing industry experienced a variety of problems, though, including a chronic shortage of foreign exchange needed to import raw materials and inputs. The sector was also constrained by state intervention, investment in inappropriate schemes, and a corresponding lack of funds to invest in more suitable undertakings. The downturn has been attributed to competition from imported goods and to the high cost of borrowing, which has deterred investment in new technology. The World Bank continues to facilitate the process of privatization and the expansion of the manufacturing sector through loans, in order to increase industrial competitiveness.

Finance
Zambia is home to many financial institutions, including commercial, development, and foreign banks. The Bank of Zambia is the central bank and issues the country’s currency, the Zambian kwacha. Most of Zambia’s financial institutions are based in Lusaka. The Lusaka Stock Exchange (LuSE) was founded in 1994. The first public offering through the LuSE occurred in May 1995, offering shares in Chilanga Cement.

Trade
Zambia’s chief export is copper, although trade in nontraditional exports—such as copper wire, cables, gemstones, and fresh vegetables and flowers—has grown. Cotton and tobacco are also exported. Sizable imports include chemicals and chemical products, as well as machinery and equipment. Zambia’s most important trade partner is South Africa, although trade with the United Kingdom is also significant.

Services
Tourism is based mainly on game viewing and visits to Victoria Falls (which also offers white-water rafting in the gorges below). Although appealing to a limited market, hunting safaris are a major source of income. Tourism promotion is coordinated by the National Tourist Board and the Ministry of Tourism, Environment, and Natural Resources. Development of the industry, which had been handicapped by the limited number of hotel beds, poor communications, and the few alternative attractions, has expanded with privatization, contributing to an increase in tourist arrivals.

Labour and taxation
The union movement, especially among the mine workers, has been a strong influence on political and economic development since the 1930s, and President Chiluba had been leader of the trade union movement.

Grants represent the majority of governmental income, but among tax-based forms of revenue, income tax and value-added taxes are the most significant.

Transportation and telecommunications
As a landlocked country, Zambia is reliant on neighbouring countries for access to the sea, and civil strife in several of these has closed key routes to the coast for much of the period since independence. At that time most imports and exports were handled by the railway that linked the country with the ports of South Africa and Mozambique via Rhodesia. The 3-foot-6-inch- (1,065-mm-) gauge line crossed the Zambezi at Victoria Falls in 1905, reaching the Copperbelt in 1909. To the north the line was linked with the Benguela Railway in 1931, giving access to the Angolan port of Lobito.

After the Rhodesian UDI, in accordance with the sanctions policy of the UN, Zambia took measures to reduce its dependence on routes to the south. Much traffic was diverted to the Benguela Railway before civil war in Angola closed that route, and a project to link Zambia with the Tanzanian port of Dar es Salaam was revived. Failing to obtain Western support, the two countries turned to China for help in building the 1,060-mile (1,710-km) Tan-Zam railway, completed in 1976. The railway, which links with the older railway at Kapiri Mposhi, has not carried the projected volume of traffic, owing partly to congestion at the port of Dar es Salaam and partly to problems with track and rolling stock.

Political changes in southern Africa have lessened the need to use northern routes. South African ports are being used more, and copper can also be trucked through Namibia’s Caprivi Strip and transported by rail from Grootfontein to Walvis Bay.

Much was done to improve the road system. The Great North Road was tarred to the Tanzanian border at Tunduma, and the Great East Road to Chipata and the Malawian border. Upstream of Victoria Falls the Zambezi is unbridged, and roads on the Kalahari Sands are especially difficult. In 1984 the BotZam highway, a 190-mile- (300-km-) long highway that connected Kazungula and Nata, Bots., was opened.

Zambia’s large rivers are relatively little used for transportation because of the presence of rapids and waterfalls and marked seasonal flow variations. Local transport is important on lakes. Mpulungu, a small port on the southern end of Lake Tanganyika, handles minor amounts of traffic bound for Rwanda and Burundi and links with the East African rail system.

Zambian Airways operates domestic services as well as international flights to destinations in neighbouring countries such as Tanzania, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and South Africa. Zambia Skyways (formerly Eastern Air) offers regional service. The main airports are at Lusaka, Ndola, and Livingstone, but there are a number of secondary and minor airports in addition to private airstrips.

Although aging, Zambia’s telephone network remains among the better in the region. Mobile cellular telephone use is expanding rapidly; the number of subscribers to cellular service in Zambia more than tripled in the early 2000s. The number of Internet users is also on the rise, albeit at a more restrained pace. Relative to the country’s population, the number of personal computers in use in Zambia is quite low.

Government and society
Constitutional framework
Zambia’s initial constitution was abandoned in August 1973 when it became a one-party state. The constitution of the Second Republic provided for a “one-party participatory democracy,” with the United National Independence Party (UNIP) the only legal political party. In response to mounting pressures within the country, the constitution was changed in 1991 to allow the reintroduction of a multiparty system.

Under the terms of the constitution, the president, who is head of state and commander in chief of the armed forces, is elected by universal adult suffrage to no more than two five-year terms. He is empowered to appoint the vice president, the chief justice, and members of the High Court on the advice of the Judicial Services Commission. During the president’s absence, his duties are assumed by the vice president. From elected members of the legislature, called the National Assembly, the president also appoints a Cabinet that consists of ministers, deputy ministers, and provincial deputy ministers. In 1996 the government enacted constitutional amendments that barred foreign nationals and those with foreign parentage from running for president, a change that generated heated debate.

Local government
Central government is represented throughout Zambia by the provincial government system, by which resident ministers—each of whom is the president’s direct representative—are appointed by the president to each of the provinces. The provinces are divided into districts, each of which has a district council chairman responsible to the provincial deputy minister; the district council chairman is particularly concerned with political and economic developments. His civil service counterpart is the district executive secretary. The cities of Lusaka, Ndola, and Kitwe have councils and mayors, but the formerly separate management of mine townships on the Copperbelt has been abolished.

Justice
The court system consists of the Supreme Court, the High Court, subordinate magistrate’s courts, and local courts. Because the law administered by all except the local courts is based on English common law, decisions of the higher British courts are of persuasive value; in fact, a few statutes of the British Parliament that were declared by ordinance (decree) to apply to Zambia are in force so far as circumstances permit. Most of the laws presently on the statute book, however, have been locally enacted by ordinance or, since independence, by Zambian acts.

The Supreme Court consists of the chief justice, deputy chief justice, and several other justices; it is the court of last resort. The High Court is presided over by a chief justice and is basically an appellate court. There are three classes of magistrate’s courts, with progressive degrees of criminal and civil jurisdiction. Local courts consist of a president sitting alone or with other members, all appointed by the Judicial Services Commission. Jurisdiction is conferred by the minister of justice and may encompass any written law, but punishment powers are limited. Local courts also deal with civil cases of a customary nature. Customary law is followed when it is not incompatible with other legislation.

The judiciary remains formally independent. The president appoints the chief justice and, on the advice of the Judicial Services Commission, also appoints other judges; however, the constitution severely restricts the president’s powers of dismissal, and on occasion judges have not shrunk from challenging the authority of the government or party. At the same time, the scope of the judiciary was seriously limited by presidential powers of preventive detention under emergency regulations brought in at the time of Rhodesian UDI in November 1965 and subsequently regularly renewed by the National Assembly. The ending of these state-of-emergency regulations on Nov. 8, 1991, was one of the first acts of the new government.

Political process
The president is elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage; election to the National Assembly, which is conducted simultaneously, is also largely decided on this basis, although a small proportion of National Assembly members are nominated by the president. There is a 27-member House of Chiefs, with a two-year-term rotating membership. It has no legislative function: it may consider bills but not block their passage. Women hold a number of positions in the Zambian political process, including posts in the National Assembly, the Cabinet, and the Supreme Court, and the country’s ethnic groups are well represented in the political system.

Zambia’s major political parties include the MMD, the United Party for National Development (UNDP), the UNIP, and the Forum for Democracy and Development (FDD). Just prior to the 2006 presidential elections, the UNDP, UNIP, and FDD organized themselves into the United Democratic Alliance, with each of the party leaders serving as a co-president.

Security
Zambia’s armed forces consist of army, air force, and paramilitary contingents, of which the army is by far the largest. Service is voluntary. Zambian troops have served as United Nations Peacekeeping Forces in several missions throughout the world.

Health and welfare
With more than one-sixth of the adult population living with HIV/AIDS, Zambia is among the world’s countries most severely affected by the disease. Early deaths from HIV/AIDS-related illnesses create a growing number of orphaned children and deprive the country of expensively trained skilled professionals. Malnutrition, caused by poverty, is widespread, particularly in the rural areas, and is a major cause of death among children. The most prevalent tropical diseases are malaria, schistosomiasis (bilharziasis), and parasitic infections such as hookworm and leprosy. Leprosy has been contained, and leprosariums have given way to outpatient treatment. Malaria is increasing in the urban areas as programs to control the Anopheles mosquito that spreads the disease have largely broken down. Schistosomiasis, a debilitating disease spread by waterborne snails, is widely found in riverine areas. Sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis), spread by the tsetse fly, is prevalent in the more sparsely populated tsetse-infected areas. Smallpox and typhoid fever have been successfully controlled through immunization programs. By contrast, there have been major outbreaks of cholera and dysentery in Lusaka and the Copperbelt, undoubtedly associated with increasing poverty and deficiencies in sanitation and community health programs. Blindness due to vitamin A deficiency is a particular problem in the Luapula valley.

Tuberculosis and meningitis, related to HIV/AIDS, are major causes of adult and infant mortality. Other common causes of death are respiratory infections, accidents and injuries (relative to the number of vehicles, the number of motor vehicle accidents is exceptionally high), and gastrointestinal disorders. Measles is a common cause of death in children. Death from heart disease is rising among the more affluent.

In the years following independence, considerable investment was made in the hospital system, which includes a number of general hospitals in the main towns, many smaller hospitals (some of which are mission-run), and rural health centres. The University Teaching Hospital in Lusaka is used by the medical school of the University of Zambia, which graduated its first doctors in 1972. A government Flying Doctor Service provides medical services in remote rural areas. Psychiatric services are based at the Chainama Hills Hospital in Lusaka, to which are linked small psychiatric units in other centres. There is a specialist pediatric hospital in Ndola. Despite local training, Zambia suffers from a shortage of doctors and other specialist staff. This is particularly true of the rural areas, despite the existence of a number of well-run mission hospitals.

In 1978 Zambia adopted Primary Health Care, a preventive and curative health program with the goal of achieving health care for all. The ailing economy in the 1980s adversely affected the quality of health care available to the population at the time that HIV/AIDS was beginning to have a major impact. The 1990s brought the development of Healthnet, a system developed to overcome communication problems between health centres and hospitals. Overall, the number of health facilities run by the government, mines, and missions has risen steadily; nevertheless, the number remains far short of demand. There is a widespread belief in alternative medicine, including reliance upon traditional healers.

In traditional Zambian society, kinship groups look after the well-being of their members. Elders are given the important task of advising in village affairs. In the towns, however, family ties have weakened, necessitating the development of government welfare services concerned with juvenile delinquency, adoption, and the care of the aged, indigent, and disabled. Voluntary and nongovernmental agencies are a growing phenomenon. Many draw upon funds from outside Zambia, thus drawing skepticism from government circles about their contribution to sustainable development and their ability to adhere to national priorities. Nevertheless, these organizations make a major contribution to the care of the less fortunate in society. The contributory National Provident Fund provides retirement benefits for those in paid employment (a minority of the labour force, including many town dwellers, are engaged in informal employment). Refugees have been a major problem, notably those fleeing conflicts in Angola and Mozambique, and the country once gave haven to many who had fled from Rhodesia during UDI and from South Africa.

Housing
There is a stark contrast between high-density squatter settlements, known as compounds or shanties, and less-crowded areas with more spacious and luxurious residences, known as mayadi. The high level of rural-to-urban migration has generated a housing problem in the urban areas. Public housing could be made available to only a few, and shanty compounds sprang up to house the majority. “Site and service schemes” designate areas for self-help housing and provide basic services such as roads and water. In Lusaka the World Bank assisted with major schemes to upgrade existing squatter areas. Nevertheless, there is a sharp contrast between the spacious bungalows in the leafy suburbs, many built for Europeans before independence but now occupied by wealthy Zambians, and the cement-block and tin-roofed houses of the dusty and crowded townships.

Education
At independence Zambia had one of the most poorly developed education systems of Britain’s former colonies, with just 109 university graduates and less than 0.5 percent of the population estimated to have completed primary education. Among these, African women were almost entirely absent. The country has since invested heavily in education at all levels. Compulsory primary education begins at seven years of age and lasts for seven years. Secondary education is divided into two cycles, the first lasting two years and the second lasting three years. More than two-thirds of adult Zambians are literate, although the rates of literacy are significantly higher among men than among women.

The University of Zambia was opened in Lusaka in 1966 and graduated its first students in 1969. The university offers courses in agriculture, education, engineering, humanities and social sciences, law, medicine, mining, natural sciences, and veterinary medicine. The basic program is four years, although engineering and medical courses are of five and seven years’ duration, respectively. Copperbelt University, formerly a part of the University of Zambia, achieved independent university status in 1987 and is located at Kitwe. It offers courses of study within its business, built-environment, natural resources, and technology schools. The language of instruction for both universities is English.

Other tertiary-level institutions are vocationally focused and include the Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce and the Natural Resources Development College, both in Lusaka, and the Zambia College of Agriculture and Northern Technical College, located in Monze and Ndola, respectively.

Cultural life
Cultural milieu
Since the 1950s the Zambian cultural scene has been transformed by large-scale urbanization and exposure to exotic influences from Europe, the Americas, and other parts of Africa. The popularity of soukous dance hall music from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, for example, has overwhelmed interest in indigenous music. Foreign aid in the form of second-hand Western clothing (called salaula) has had a negative effect on the domestic clothing industry.

With the object of preserving cultural diversity, government initiatives have led to the revival of many traditional ceremonies. Some, such as the kuomboka of the Lozi—a now-ceremonial trip to higher ground (the “flood capital”) from the Zambezi floodplain during the river’s annual flood—survived essentially unchanged; others have taken up new forms.

Daily life and social customs
Zambians still value traditional communal ideals such as reciprocity within a household, the extended family, the neighbourhood, the clan, and a formal political system of chieftainship. Changes in the modern arena have been too uneven to reduce Zambians’ dependence on one another, so they often exercise umucinshi, a Bemba term for mutual respect, when negotiating favours.

As a predominantly Christian country, Zambia marks the celebration of the Christian holidays of Good Friday, Easter, and Christmas. Independence Day is observed on October 24, and a variety of other holidays—such as Youth Day, Heroes Day, Unity Day, and Farmers’ Day—take place throughout the year. Additional feasts and festivals unique to various ethnic groups are also celebrated.

The arts
Traditional Zambian art consists chiefly of wood carving (most often practiced by men), pottery making (usually practiced by women), and basket weaving (practiced by both genders). Among musical instruments, drums are the most widely used, but there also are stringed bows, flutes, horns and pipes, xylophones, bells, rattles, and the kalimba, or African piano, made of strips of steel attached to a small board and vibrated by the fingers. Music, dancing, and song are used in tribal rituals and celebrations and are connected with good health, prosperity and security, or with the cycle of birth, marriage, and death. Music, as in many other countries, is used for entertainment as well and varies in form among ethnic groups.

Various types of theatre have flourished. In the last years of colonial rule, dance drama was developed for nationalist ends; the Chikwakwa Theatre, based at the University of Zambia, pioneered politically radical popular drama in the early years of independence. In the 1980s, aid agencies and other bodies promoted “theatre for development,” often unscripted and in vernacular languages, and government departments have used drama to communicate agricultural and health messages.

Cultural institutions
There is a national museum at Livingstone and another in Ndola, on the Copperbelt. The Moto Moto Museum at Mbala focuses on the traditions of the Bemba people, and there are small field museums at some national monuments. The country’s national archives are located at Lusaka, and there are public libraries located in Kitwe and Ndola. Relics of the country’s past are the concern of the Commission for the Preservation of Natural and Historical Monuments and Relics. The National Dance Troupe performs the traditional dances of many groups. In 2005 the Gule Wamkulu—a ritual dance performed at initiation ceremonies, funerals, and other important occasions—and the Vimbuza Healing Dance were both designated UNESCO Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.

Sports and recreation
European colonialists introduced Western sports in Zambia in the early 1900s but strictly restricted participation by non-Europeans. Africans had the greatest access to these activities in the Copperbelt mining townships, where the mining authorities provided better sporting facilities for its workers than the government did for the rest of the colony. As a result, most of Zambia’s best athletes had their start in the Copperbelt region.

Although boxing, netball, volleyball, squash, rugby, golf, and athletics are all popular, football (soccer) is considered the national sport. Football, first introduced in Livingstone, has become so popular throughout the country that it is common to find streets empty and business at a standstill when an important international match is being played. The country was devastated in 1993 when all but three players on the national football team—as well as several coaches and officials—died in a plane crash on their way to a World Cup qualifying match. Among Zambia’s most revered players have been the late Godfrey Chitalu, who died in the 1993 crash, and Kalusha Bwalya, one of the best-loved sportsmen in the country. Bwalya, or “Great Kalu” as he is fondly known, led the national team that beat world champion Italy at the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul.

Zambia’s Olympic committee was formed in 1964 and recognized by the International Olympic Committee that year. The country was known as Northern Rhodesia when it attended its first Games in 1964 but has since competed under the name Zambia, missing only the 1976 Montreal Games as part of the African boycott.

Media and publishing
The once-noted independence of the press was compromised by government and party control; ownership of the Times of Zambia passed to the party in 1982, and the Zambia Daily Mail has been in government ownership since 1965. The church-owned weekly National Mirror, founded in 1970, was able to take a more independent line, as has The Post, which first appeared in 1991 in the wake of moves toward a more pluralist political system.

The Zambia Educational Publishing House (formerly the Kenneth Kaunda Foundation) is a government-backed publisher of the works of Zambian authors and school textbooks. The University of Zambia publishes books and journals. Some other publishers are church-supported. Zambian scholars have contributed to knowledge in a wide range of disciplines, often in locally published academic journals, though economic difficulty has limited research opportunities.

The state-owned Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation operates both national and Line of Rail radio stations; programming is offered in a variety of languages. There are also commercial radio stations, and the Roman Catholic religious community operates several additional stations.

Richard Hamilton Hobson
Geoffrey J. Williams
Ed.

History

Archaeology and early history
Stone tools attributable to early types of humans have been found near Victoria Falls and in the far northeast, near Kalambo Falls. In 1921, excavations at Kabwe revealed the almost complete skull of Homo sapiens rhodesiensis (“Broken Hill Man”), which may be well over 100,000 years old. However, by 20,000 bce the only surviving type of human throughout the Old World was the ancestor of modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens, who developed the use of spears, the bow and arrow, game traps, and grindstones. Remains of such industries have been found in much of central and northern Zambia, sometimes near lakes and rivers but often in caves and rock-shelters.

During the 1st millennium ce, Zambia was occupied by migrants from farther north who probably spoke Bantu languages; they certainly cultivated crops and kept domestic stock. Traces of ironworking in central and western Zambia have been dated to the first five or six centuries ce. Iron tools and weapons greatly increased mastery over both man and nature and, together with food production, promoted population growth. Stone-using hunters and gatherers were liable to be overrun and absorbed by the food producers, though some survived on the edges of farming zones until a few centuries ago. The complex layers of paintings found in rock-shelters in northeastern Zambia indicate that the homes of stone-using hunters became the shrines of invading farmers.

In central Zambia, by the 6th century ce, the first food producers worked copper as well as iron. By about 1000 ce, copper ingots were being made at Kansanshi, at the western end of the Copperbelt, which implies that copper was being traded extensively and perhaps used as currency.

Early in the 2nd millennium ce, cattle keeping became more intensive on the Batoka Plateau of southern Zambia, while cotton spinning and pipe smoking were introduced. The associated pottery seems directly ancestral to that made locally in the 20th century. Similar evidence of cultural continuity over a long period has also been found in the resemblance between modern pottery in central, northern, and eastern Zambia and a kind of pottery that has been dated to the 12th century ce. The differences in pottery traditions have been ascribed to immigration. They also indicate thicker settlement of woodland through the adoption of chitemene cultivation, widespread in Zambia even today; this technique depends heavily on the use of iron axes, because seed is sown in the ashes of branches lopped from trees.

In southern Zambia, archaeology has thrown light on both the emergence of class distinctions and the beginnings of trade with the east coast. About the 14th century a few people were buried wearing ornaments of seashells and exotic glass beads near Kalomo and at Ingombe Ilede, near the confluence of the Zambezi and Kafue rivers. The latter burials also included gold beads, copper ingots, and iron bells of a kind later associated with chieftainship. These metals would have come from south of the Zambezi, but they were probably being reexported down the river by Muslim traders, either Arab or African.

The period between about 1500 and 1800 remains relatively obscure. This was when copper was most intensively mined at Kansanshi, but it is not known who was buying it. The main evidence for these centuries consists of oral traditions. In much of Zambia, from the upper Kafue to the Malawi border, there are legends of tribes being founded by chiefly families who came from Luba country in what is now southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Such stories should not be taken at face value; they dramatize prolonged processes of population drift and the spread of cultural influences. By the 18th century, small-scale chieftainship was probably widespread in northern and eastern Zambia, but few of the tribal names current today would have meant much; such names refer not to long-enduring communities but to changing perceptions of cultural and political differences. In the early 19th century, however, there were at least four areas in which the growth of kingdoms was strengthening the sense of tribal identity: in the east, among the Chewa; in the northeast, among the Bemba; on the lower Luapula, among the Lunda (who had indeed invaded from the west about 1740); and on the upper Zambezi, among the Luyana (later called Lozi). In the Lunda and Luyana kingdoms a prosperous valley environment encouraged dense settlement and prompted the development of relatively centralized government.

External contacts
Trade between Zambia and the Western world began with the Portuguese in Mozambique. Early in the 17th century the Portuguese ousted Muslims from the gold trade of central Africa; early in the 18th century they founded trading posts at Zumbo and Feira, at the confluence of the Zambezi and Luangwa rivers. By 1762 they were regularly acquiring ivory and copper from Zambians in exchange for cotton cloth. During the later 18th century, slave-owning Goans and Portuguese mined gold and hunted elephants among the southern Chewa. Their activities were reported to Kazembe III, the Lunda king on the Luapula, by Bisa traders who exported his ivory and copper to the Yao in Malawi. Kazembe already had indirect access to European goods from the west coast; he now hoped to cut out his African middlemen. One Goan visited Kazembe and was warmly received, but, though the Portuguese government dispatched further expeditions in 1798 and 1831, they came to nothing, mainly because the Portuguese on the Zambezi were turning their attention to exporting slaves rather than ivory or gold. Western Zambia was also beginning to be enmeshed in the Portuguese slave trade, directed to Brazil. From the early 19th century African traders from Angola bought slaves to the north of the Lozi kingdom, though the Lozi themselves kept servile labour for production at home.

During the second half of the 19th century Zambia was convulsed by traders, raiders, and invaders who came from all surrounding areas. From about 1840 to 1864 the Lozi kingdom was ruled by the Kololo, warrior-herdsmen who had fled north from Sotho country. In the 1860s and ’70s the northern Chewa were conquered by a group of Ngoni, who had also come from the far south. Meanwhile, the Bemba and Kazembe’s Lunda began selling ivory and slaves to Arabs and Africans from the east coast. At the same time, ivory and slaves were hunted in central Zambia by Chikunda adventurers armed with guns, and South African traders were buying ivory from the Lozi. A few rulers contrived to turn such trade to their own advantage, and the general rise in demand for goods stimulated local production of ironwork, salt, tobacco, and food; indeed, several crops of American origin were introduced, such as corn (maize), cassava (manioc), peanuts (groundnuts), and sugarcane. Much of Zambia was devastated by marauders, however.

At the end of the 19th century Zambia came under British rule. British interest in the region had first been aroused by the missionary-explorer David Livingstone, who crossed Zambia during three great expeditions between 1853 and his death, near Lake Bangweulu, in 1873. Livingstone’s reports of the expanding slave trade inspired other missionaries to come to central Africa and continue the struggle against it, but it was the mining magnate Cecil Rhodes who ensured that so much country north as well as south of the Zambezi came within a British sphere of influence during the “Scramble for Africa.” In 1889 the British government granted a charter to Rhodes’s British South Africa Company (BSAC), bestowing powers of administration and enabling it to stake claims to African territory at the expense of other European powers. The unique butterfly shape of Zambia resulted from agreements in the 1890s between Britain and Germany, Portugal, and the Belgian king Leopold II, and these in turn rested on treaties, mostly stereotyped in form, between Rhodes’s agents and African chiefs.

At this stage there was little resistance to white intrusion. The most immediate threat to African land and labour came in Ngoniland, thought by whites to be rich in gold, and the Ngoni duly fought company troops in 1898. The Bemba, however, faced no such challenge and in any case were deeply divided, while the Lozi king believed that alliance with the company would protect his empire against both the Portuguese and the Ndebele. It is also likely that disease and famine undermined the will to resist: there were smallpox epidemics in the early 1890s, widespread rinderpest in 1892–95, and locust plagues throughout the decade.

Colonial rule
At first the BSAC administered its territory north of the Zambezi in two parts, North-Eastern and North-Western Rhodesia. In 1911 these were united to form Northern Rhodesia, with its capital at Livingstone, near Victoria Falls. Among a population of perhaps one million, there were about 1,500 white residents; some had come to mine surface deposits of copper, and a few, mostly from South Africa, farmed on the plateau east of Livingstone. However, the BSAC regarded the country chiefly as a source of labour for gold and coal mines in Southern Rhodesia and for the copper mines in Katanga, in the Belgian Congo, which in 1910 were linked by rail to Southern Rhodesia and the east-coast port of Beira, Mozam. By then company officials had been posted to most parts of Northern Rhodesia and levied taxes in order to force Africans to seek work; such pressure sometimes provoked violent, but small-scale, resistance.

World War I bore heavily on the territory. For the campaign against the Germans in East Africa, 3,500 troops were recruited and 50,000 porters conscripted, mostly from the northeast; many never returned. Food supplies were requisitioned, yet food production was crippled; women, as always, bore the brunt of sowing and harvesting, but, in the absence of men to cut trees and clear new land, farm plots were worked to exhaustion. Labour was also urgently needed for mining: war boosted the demand for base metals from Northern Rhodesia as well as Katanga. The Bwana Mkubwa mine exported copper from 1916 to 1918, and from 1917 to 1925 the country’s main export was lead from Broken Hill (now Kabwe). African resentment of wartime hardship found expression in the millennial Watchtower movement, which inspired rebellion among the Mambwe in the northeast. More-effective opposition to BSAC rule came from white settlers, especially when an income tax was imposed in 1920. The company was ready to give up the increasingly costly burden of administering Northern Rhodesia and in 1924 handed over this responsibility to the Colonial Office in London, which soon set up a legislative council to which five members were elected by the white population, then about 4,000.

The British government hoped to increase white settlement as part of a wider strategy to strengthen British influence between South Africa and Kenya. Land was reserved for white ownership along the railway line, in the far north, and in the east; around these areas African reserves were marked out in 1928–30. This soon led to overcrowding, soil exhaustion, and food shortage; yet few whites took up the land available to them. By 1930 it was clear that copper was the country’s most promising resource. Huge deposits had been located far beneath the headwaters of the Kafue and were mined by companies mostly financed from South Africa, through the Anglo American Corporation, and the United States, through the Rhodesian Selection Trust.

In 1930–31 prices for copper collapsed, partly as a result of the worldwide depression. However, the new mines enjoyed a comparative advantage, since they worked high-grade ores at relatively low cost. For skilled labour they depended on whites, who had to be paid what they might have earned in South Africa; African labour, however, was cheap and abundant, and employers accepted a high turnover rate to avoid providing the amenities that would encourage permanent African settlement in urban areas. From 1935 copper prices rose sharply, and by 1938 Northern Rhodesia contributed a substantial amount to the world’s total output of copper.

Yet copper exports did not confer much prosperity. Near the railway both African and white farmers grew food for the mines, but most African farmers were too remote from the market to be able to earn a cash income. More than half the able-bodied male population worked for wages away from home, and as many of these worked outside the territory as within it. On the Copperbelt itself, low wages and poor conditions provoked Africans to strike at three mines in 1935. Nor were rising copper sales of much benefit to the government (whose capital was moved to Lusaka in 1935). The mineral rights were owned by the BSAC, which duly exacted royalties. Taxation was levied on what profits remained, but half was retained by the British government, which made only tiny grants for economic development. In 1938 these arrangements were criticized by a visiting financial expert, Sir Alan Pim. In a report to the Colonial Office, he urged more public investment in roads, schools, and health services, for Africans as well as whites. Missionaries ran many primary schools, but in 1942 only 35 Africans were receiving secondary education.

When World War II broke out in 1939, Britain contracted to buy the whole output of the Copperbelt. British dependence on undisturbed copper production meant that white mine workers were allowed to maintain an industrial colour bar. Nonetheless, a second strike by African mine workers, in 1940, caused a revision of wage scales to take account of accumulating experience and skill. After the war the new Labour government in Britain began to promote the formation of African trade unions, and by 1949 half the African mine workers in Northern Rhodesia belonged to a single union. In the same year, new legislation confirmed that (in contrast to South Africa and Southern Rhodesia) African unions had the same bargaining rights as those of white workers. Meanwhile, between 1942 and 1946, African teachers, clerks, foremen, and clergy had formed welfare societies both in the mining towns and in rural areas; in 1948 these gave rise to the Northern Rhodesia Congress. Some of its members sat on the African Representative Council set up by the government in 1946; this body had no power, but it criticized political and social conditions, especially the informal colour bar, and from 1948 it elected two Africans to sit on the Legislative Council. In the countryside “indirect rule” through chiefs became more broadly representative.

In some respects, Africans made important advances in the first postwar years. On the other hand, these advances also strengthened white aspirations to settler self-government, as in Southern Rhodesia. Although whites formed less than 2 percent of the Northern Rhodesian population, their numbers rose between 1946 and 1951 from 22,000 to 37,000, partly because of immigration from Britain. The Legislative Council included eight elected white members, and in deference to them a large-scale development plan was drastically revised between 1947 and 1953 at the expense of African education. Yet this was not enough: to many whites the best hope of entrenching white supremacy seemed to lie in amalgamation with the south. This ambition gained support from British politicians and civil servants who feared that Southern Rhodesia would otherwise fall under the sway of the Afrikaner nationalists who had come to power in South Africa in 1948 (see National Party). In 1951 the British Labour government was replaced by Conservatives less concerned to avoid alienating African opinion. Despite widespread popular protest, in which chiefs and Congress combined, Northern and Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland were brought together in the Central African Federation in 1953.

The federation was a curious and unstable compromise. Its government was based in Southern Rhodesia, which also dominated the federal parliament. It had wide powers over all three territories, though in the north Britain retained control over questions of African land, education, and political status. At first, African suspicions of federation were blunted in Northern Rhodesia by an economic boom. Copper prices had risen steeply following sterling devaluation in 1949 and the outbreak of war in Korea in 1950; the mining companies finally began to pay regular dividends, while the Northern Rhodesian government received a share of royalties. Following a major African strike in 1952, the real wages of African mine workers at last moved upward. The companies increased their use of machinery and African skills; in 1955 the industrial colour bar was breached, and a select minority of African workers were encouraged to live out their working lives in the mining areas: “stabilized” labour began to replace oscillating migrant labour.

In 1956, however, the copper boom came to an end. Whites in Northern Rhodesia became increasingly aware of how far the federal tax system channeled copper profits into Southern Rhodesia. Many Africans were thrown out of work, while little had been done to help African farming or education, despite federal propaganda for “partnership.” A new generation of leaders in Congress wanted Northern Rhodesia to become an independent African state, as Ghana had become in 1957. In 1958, led by Kenneth Kaunda, a former teacher and civil servant, these radicals split off from Congress to found the Zambia African National Congress and its successor, the United National Independence Party (UNIP). Britain accepted that Africans would have to be given more power than the federal government was willing to concede. In 1962 UNIP organized a massive campaign of civil disobedience, but it agreed to take part in elections under a new constitution, and an election later that year gave Africans a majority in the legislature. The federation was dissolved at the end of 1963. Early in 1964 an election based on universal adult suffrage gave UNIP a decisive majority, and it was supported by nearly a third of the white voters. On October 24 the country became the independent Republic of Zambia, within the Commonwealth and with Kaunda serving as executive president.


 

Independent Zambia

Zambia under Kaunda (1964–91)
During the early years of independence, Zambia was comparatively prosperous. Copper prices rose steadily from 1964 to 1970, boosted by the Vietnam War, and Zambia became the world’s third largest producer of copper. Meanwhile, the leakage of copper profits abroad was greatly reduced. In 1964 the government acquired the mineral rights of the BSAC, and thereafter it also increased mining taxation. The country embarked on long-overdue investment in communications and social services. In 1960 there had been only 2,500 Africans in secondary schools; by 1971 there were 54,000. At independence there were fewer than 100 Zambian university graduates; in 1965 the University of Zambia was founded, and by 1971 it had 2,000 students. Zambians finally began to predominate in the upper ranks of the civil service, the army, business, and the professions. The copper industry still relied heavily on white expertise, but the colour bar had vanished, and in 1966 black mine workers secured a large increase in pay, which soon affected wage levels generally.

On the other hand, Zambia incurred massive costs from the survival of white supremacy across the Zambezi. Following (Southern) Rhodesia’s Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) in 1965, the United Nations imposed sanctions intended to isolate that country, but these bore much more heavily on Zambia. Copper exports were expensively rerouted northward, and a tarmac road and oil pipeline were built to Dar es Salaam, Tanz. Trade with Rhodesia was steadily reduced, and the border was finally closed in 1973. A new coal mine and new hydroelectric schemes made Zambia largely independent of the Rhodesian-controlled power station at the Kariba Dam (built in 1959). In 1970–75 China built a railway from the Copperbelt to Dar es Salaam, which committed Zambia and Tanzania to extensive trade with China.

National integration had been a major task for Zambia’s leaders at independence. White settlers presented no great difficulty, and those farmers who stayed on were valued for their major contribution to food production. African “tribalism” was a more serious problem. This had less to do with the survival of precolonial political loyalties than with regional differences aggravated under colonial rule and the absence of any African lingua franca. The Lozi and other peoples in the west and south had long depended on labour migration across the Zambezi; the Copperbelt was dominated by Bemba speakers from the northeast. Kaunda did not himself belong to any major ethnic group, but his continuation in power required constant reshuffling of colleagues in the party and the government to preclude the emergence of a rival. In the name of national unity, UNIP sometimes made exaggerated claims to allegiance; such claims had brought it into armed conflict in 1964 with the Lumpa church founded by Alice Lenshina and in the late 1960s with Jehovah’s Witnesses. UNIP also challenged the independence of the judiciary, though from 1969 the authority of the bench was strengthened by the appointment of black Zambian judges.

In the early 1970s Zambia’s economic fortunes took a turn for the worse. Copper continued to provide the great bulk of export earnings, but prices fluctuated erratically and suffered a prolonged fall in 1975. The price of oil shot up in 1973, and inflation, already serious, rapidly increased. The government, committed to high spending, both public and private, reacted by borrowing heavily abroad and drawing on reserves. Investment declined, as did the efficiency of the transport network. State control of the mining industry, achieved in 1969–75, artificially prolonged its life but also increased the scope of corruption, as did parastatal corporations set up to promote industrial diversification.

The government became increasingly authoritarian. Kaunda felt threatened by critics at home and by the illegal Rhodesian regime, which harassed African guerrillas based in Zambia. UDI had already prompted Kaunda to impose emergency regulations, which thereafter were regularly renewed by the National Assembly and enabled the president to detain political opponents without trial. In 1973 the National Assembly approved a one-party constitution, and in 1975 UNIP took over Zambia’s main newspaper. To some extent, fear of foreign attack diminished with the advent of independence in Portuguese Africa in 1975 and in Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) in 1980. But warfare in Angola and South African interference continued to provide pretexts to curb internal opposition.

Still more worrying, however, was the deepening economic crisis. Kaunda urged Zambians to look to agriculture rather than mining for a solution, but rural development policies, though consuming foreign aid, were mostly ill-conceived and failed to stem the historic drift to the towns. By 1980, out of a population of 5.7 million, more than 2 million lived in towns—many without jobs or housing—and inevitably, disease and crime flourished. Urban dwellers refused to pay the high prices that might have encouraged more farmers to produce for the market. Government subsidies sometimes bridged the gap, but their partial removal in 1986 and 1990 provoked major food riots in the towns. The restoration of subsidies in 1987 cost Zambia the support of the International Monetary Fund, though such support had been critical in coping with enormous foreign debts. Mounting discontent was reflected in recurrent closings of the University of Zambia, and in August 1991, in response to widespread pressure, the National Assembly abolished the one-party state. Multiparty elections were held in October, and Kaunda was decisively defeated by a trade union leader, Frederick Chiluba of the Movement for Multi-party Democracy (MMD). UNIP was left with fewer than one-sixth of the seats in the National Assembly.

Chiluba presidency (1991–2001)
Although the 1991 election positioned Zambia to become one of Africa’s leaders in the area of political stability, its fulfillment of that promise was hampered by a variety of domestic issues. Chiluba’s administration worked to bring about economic reform, but ironically economic progress was limited due to the widespread corruption that became a problem under his rule. In addition, Chiluba’s presidency was marked by unsuccessful attempts by opposing forces to topple the ruling party, termed “coup attempts,” although they involved neither bloodshed nor widespread popular support.

On May 16, 1996, the National Assembly approved amendments to the constitution that declared that presidential candidates must be Zambian citizens born of parents who are Zambian by birth and that a candidate must not be a tribal chief. These amendments were widely viewed in both domestic and international circles as a deliberate attempt to prevent Kaunda—whose parents were from Malawi—and his running mate, Senior Chief Inyambo Yeta, from running for office. Despite broad opposition, however, the National Assembly passed the amendments, thereby preventing Kaunda’s candidacy. Later that year Chiluba was reelected to a second term. Some viewed his reelection as an empty victory, however, since Kaunda had been prevented from contesting and UNIP had boycotted the elections.

Chiluba faced another weak coup attempt on Oct. 28, 1997, when a group of Zambian army commandos seized control of the national radio station in Lusaka and proclaimed that they had toppled Chiluba’s government; within hours, however, the group was overpowered by Zambian troops loyal to the president. Several people were later charged in connection with the event, including Kaunda, who was arrested on December 25. He was released six days later, but he was placed under house arrest until June 1998, when all charges were withdrawn.

Discontent with the state of the economy was evident in May 2001 when the country’s public sector workers went on strike, demanding an increase in salaries and improved working conditions. The strike lasted several weeks and had a detrimental effect on the daily functioning of the country, closing schools and hospital wards and bringing the judicial system to a halt. The government resolved the strike in July, just days before Zambia was to host an international summit. Chiluba was also concerned with the growing refugee population in the country: beginning in 1999 and continuing for several years, Zambia received more than 200,000 refugees fleeing conflicts in the neighbouring Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola.

Limited to two terms in office, Chiluba stepped down in 2001. His handpicked successor, Levy Mwanawasa of the MMD, was declared the winner of the hotly contested election and was sworn into office in January 2002.

Mwanawasa administration (2002–08)
Despite being mired in election controversy, Mwanawasa moved quickly to assert his authority and launched a campaign against corruption. The initial targets of the campaign—the individuals alleged to be responsible for the corruption that damaged Zambia’s economy in the 1990s—included former president Chiluba and many of his associates. Mwanawasa also initiated a review of the country’s constitution in 2003 in an effort to bring about political reform, but some organizations invited to participate in the review declined, claiming that the review process itself was flawed.

Concerns over Mwanawasa’s health emerged late in his first term, after he suffered a stroke in April 2006. He reassured the country that he was fit for office and stood for reelection later that year, garnering more than two-fifths of the vote. His nearest competitor, Michael Sata, made claims of voting irregularities and contested the election. Sporadic violence ensued in areas loyal to Sata, but the result of the election stood, and Mwanawasa was sworn in for his second term in October 2006. Mwanawasa again suffered a stroke in late June 2008. Rumours of his death circulated a few days later but were quickly refuted by Zambian government officials. He never fully recovered, however, and he died several weeks later. Under the terms of the constitution, a special election to choose a new president was eventually scheduled for later that year; in the interim, Vice President Rupiah Banda served as acting president. The election, held on October 30, was contested by four candidates, including Banda and Sata. Banda won, although by only a narrow margin, and Sata, who finished a close second, alleged that the vote had been flawed.

Andrew D. Roberts
Ed.