Overview
Country, southern Asia.
Area: 56,827 sq mi (147,181 sq km). Population (2007): 28,196,000.
Capital: Kathmandu. Most of the people are Nepalese of Indo-Aryan
ancestry; there is a significant minority of Tibeto-Nepalese peoples.
Languages: Nepali (official), English, various others. Religions:
Hinduism; also Buddhism, Islam. Currency: Nepalese rupee. Nepal contains
some of the most rugged mountainous terrain in the world. The Great
Himalayas, including Mount Everest, are in its central and northern
parts. As a result of its years of geographic and self-imposed
isolation, it is one of the world’s least-developed countries. Its
market economy is mostly based on agriculture, including livestock
raising; tourism is also important. The region developed under early
Buddhist influence, with dynastic rule dating to about the 4th century
ce. Nepal was formed into a single kingdom in 1769 and fought border
wars in the 18th–19th century. Its independence was recognized by
Britain in 1923. Nepal operated as a constitutional monarchy from 1959
into the early 21st century. A new constitution in 1990 restricted royal
authority and accepted a democratically elected parliamentary
government. Nepal signed trade agreements with India in 1997. The
country was stunned in 2001 when the crown prince killed most members of
the royal family, including himself. After a historic vote by a
constituent assembly in 2008, the monarchy was abolished and Nepal
became a multiparty republic, with the prime minister serving both as
the chief of state and as the head of government.
Profile
Official name Sanghiya Loktantrik Ganatantra Nepal (Federal
Democratic Republic of Nepal)
Form of government multiparty republic with interim legislature
(Constituent Assembly [6011])2
Chief of state President
Head of government Prime Minister
Capital Kathmandu
Official language Nepali
Official religion none
Monetary unit Nepalese rupee (NRs)
Population estimate (2008) 28,757,000
Total area (sq mi) 56,827
Total area (sq km) 147,181
1Includes 26 nonelected seats.
2An interim constitution was promulgated Jan. 15, 2007. In late
December 2007 the interim legislature voted to abolish the monarchy
(which had been suspended from January 2007); the formal endorsement of
the abolishment occurred in May 2008.
Main
country of Asia, lying along the southern slopes of the Himalayan
mountain ranges. It is a landlocked country located between India to the
east, south, and west and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the
north. Its territory extends roughly 500 miles (800 kilometres) from
east to west and 90 to 150 miles from north to south. The capital is
Kāthmāndu.
Nepal, long under the rule of hereditary prime ministers favouring a
policy of isolation, remained closed to the outside world until a palace
revolt in 1950 restored the crown’s authority in 1951; the country
gained admission to the United Nations in 1955. In 1991 the kingdom
established a multiparty parliamentary system. In 2008, however, after a
decade-long period of violence and turbulent negotiation with a strong
Maoist insurgency, the monarchy was dissolved, and Nepal was declared a
democratic republic.
Wedged between two giants, India and China, Nepal seeks to keep a
balance between the two countries in its foreign policy—and thus to
remain independent. A factor that contributes immensely to the
geopolitical importance of the country is the fact that a strong Nepal
can deny China access to the rich Gangetic Plain; Nepal thus marks the
southern boundary of the Chinese sphere north of the Himalayas in Asia.
As a result of its years of geographic and self-imposed isolation,
Nepal is one of the least developed nations of the world. In recent
years many countries, including India, China, the United States, the
United Kingdom, Japan, Denmark, Germany, Canada, and Switzerland, have
provided economic assistance to Nepal. The extent of foreign aid to
Nepal has been influenced to a considerable degree by the strategic
position of the country between India and China.
The land
Relief
Nepal contains some of the most rugged and difficult mountain
terrain in the world. Roughly 75 percent of the country is covered by
mountains. From the south to the north, Nepal can be divided into four
main physical belts, each of which extends east to west across the
country. These are, first, the Tarai, a low, flat, fertile land adjacent
to the border of India; second, the forested Churia foothills and the
Inner Tarai zone, rising from the Tarai plain to the rugged Mahābhārat
Range; third, the mid-mountain region between the Mahābhārat Range and
the Great Himalayas; and, fourth, the Great Himalaya Range, rising to
more than 29,000 feet (some 8,850 metres).
The Tarai forms the northern extension of the Gangetic Plain and
varies in width from less than 16 to more than 20 miles, narrowing
considerably in several places. A 10-mile-wide belt of rich agricultural
land stretches along the southern part of the Tarai; the northern
section, adjoining the foothills, is a marshy region in which wild
animals abound and malaria is endemic.
The Churia Range, which is sparsely populated, rises in almost
perpendicular escarpments to an altitude of more than 4,000 feet.
Between the Churia Range to the south and the Mahābhārat Range to the
north, there are broad basins from 2,000 to 3,000 feet high, about 10
miles wide, and 20 to 40 miles long; these basins are often referred to
as the Inner Tarai. In many places they have been cleared of the forests
and savanna grass to provide timber and areas for cultivation.
A complex system of mountain ranges, some 50 miles in width and
varying in elevation from 8,000 to 14,000 feet, lie between the
Mahābhārat Range and the Great Himalayas. The ridges of the Mahābhārat
Range present a steep escarpment toward the south and a relatively
gentle slope toward the north. To the north of the Mahābhārat Range,
which encloses the valley of Kāthmāndu, are the more lofty ranges of the
Inner Himalaya (Lesser Himalaya), rising to perpetually snow-covered
peaks. The Kāthmāndu and the Pokharā valleys lying within this
mid-mountain region are flat basins, formerly covered with lakes, that
were formed by the deposition of fluvial and fluvioglacial material
brought down by rivers and glaciers from the enclosing ranges during the
four glacial and intervening warm phases of the Pleistocene Epoch (from
about 2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago).
The Great Himalaya Range, ranging in elevation from 14,000 to more
than 29,000 feet, contains many of the world’s highest peaks—Everest,
Kānchenjunga I, Lhotse I, Makālu I, Cho Oyu, Dhaulāgiri I, Manāslu I,
and Annapūrna I—all of them above 26,400 feet. Except for scattered
settlements in high mountain valleys, this entire area is uninhabited.
Drainage
The Kāthmāndu Valley, the political and cultural hub of the nation,
is drained by the Bāghmati River, flowing southward, which washes the
steps of the sacred temple of Paśupatinātha (Pashupatinath) and rushes
out of the valley through the deeply cut Chhobar gorge. Some sandy
layers of the lacustrine beds act as aquifers (water-bearing strata of
permeable rock, sand, or gravel), and springs occur in the Kāthmāndu
Valley where the sands outcrop. The springwater often gushes out of
dragon-shaped mouths of stone made by the Nepalese; it is then collected
in tanks for drinking and washing and also for raising paddy nurseries
in May, before the monsoon. Drained by the Seti River, the Pokharā
Valley, 96 miles west of Kāthmāndu, is also a flat lacustrine basin.
There are a few remnant lakes in the Pokharā basin, the largest being
Phewa Lake, which is about two miles long and nearly a mile wide. North
of the basin lies the Annapūrna massif of the Great Himalaya Range.
The major rivers of Nepal—the Kosi, Nārāyani (Gandak), and Karnāli,
running southward across the strike of the Himalayan ranges—form
transverse valleys with deep gorges, which are generally several
thousand feet in depth from the crest of the bordering ranges. The
watershed of these rivers lies not along the line of highest peaks in
the Himalayas but to the north of it, usually in Tibet.
The rivers have considerable potential for development of
hydroelectric power. Two irrigation-hydroelectric projects have been
undertaken jointly with India on the Kosi and Nārāyani rivers.
Discussions have been held to develop the enormous potential of the
Karnāli River. A 60,000-kilowatt hydroelectric project at Kulekhani,
funded by the World Bank, Kuwait, and Japan, began operation in 1982.
In the upper courses of all Nepalese rivers, which run through
mountain regions, there are little or no flood problems. In low-lying
areas of the Tarai plain, however, serious floods occur.
The rivers and small streams of the Tarai, especially those in which
the dry season discharge is small, are polluted by large quantities of
domestic waste thrown into them. Towns and villages have expanded
without proper provision for sewage disposal facilities, and more
industries have been established at selected centres in the Tarai. The
polluted surface water in the Kāthmāndu and Pokharā valleys, as well as
in the Tarai, are unacceptable for drinking.
Climate
Nepal’s climate, influenced by elevation as well as by its location
in a subtropical latitude, ranges from subtropical monsoon conditions in
the Tarai, through a warm temperate climate between 4,000 and 7,000 feet
in the mid-mountain region, to cool temperate conditions in the higher
parts of mountains between 7,000 and 11,000 feet, to an Alpine climate
at altitudes between 14,000 and 16,000 feet along the lower slopes of
the Himalaya mountains. At altitudes above 16,000 feet the temperature
is always below freezing and the surface covered by snow and ice.
Rainfall is ample in the eastern portion of the Tarai (which receives
from 70 to 75 inches [1,800 to 1,900 millimetres] a year at Bīratnagar)
and in the mountains, but the western portion of Nepal (where from 30 to
35 inches a year fall at Mahendranagar) is drier.
In Kāthmāndu Valley, average temperatures range from 50° F (10° C) in
January to 78° F (26° C) in July, and the lowest and highest
temperatures recorded have been 27° and 99° F (-3° and 37° C). The
average annual rainfall is about 55 inches, most of which falls in the
period from June to September. At Pokharā the temperature ranges from
40° F (4° C) in January to approximately 100° F (38° C) in June, just
before the monsoon. In winter, temperatures during the day rise to 70° F
(21° C), creating pleasant conditions, with cool nights and warm days.
Because warm rain-bearing monsoon winds discharge most of their moisture
as they encounter the Annapūrna range, rainfall is quite heavy (about
100 inches) in the Pokharā Valley.
Plant life
The natural vegetation of Nepal follows the pattern of climate and
altitude. A tropical, moist zone of deciduous vegetation occurs in the
Tarai and the Churia Range. These forests consist mainly of khair
(Acacia catechu), a spring tree with yellow flowers and flat pods;
sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo), an East Indian tree yielding dark brown
durable timber; and sal (Shorea robusta), an East Indian timber tree
with foliage providing food for lac insects (which deposit lac, a
resinous substance used for the manufacture of shellac and varnishes, on
the tree’s twigs). On the Mahābhārat Range, at elevations between 5,000
and 10,000 feet, vegetation consists of a mixture of many species,
chiefly pines, oaks, rhododendrons, poplars, walnuts, and larch. Between
10,000 and 12,000 feet, fir mixed with birch, as well as rhododendron,
abound. In the mid-mountain region of Nepal a fairly dense population
has cleared all but the most inaccessible parts of the forest, which are
restricted to areas of steep slopes and rocky terrain. Similarly, all
readily accessible parts of valuable sal forest in the Tarai have been
devastated by overcutting and depletive practices. The vast forested
area below the timber line in the Great Himalaya Range bears some of the
most valuable forests in Nepal, containing spruce, fir, cypress,
juniper, and birch. Alpine vegetation occupies higher parts of the Great
Himalaya Range. Just below the snow line, between 14,000 and 15,000
feet, grassy vegetation affords favourable grazing ground in summer.
Pradyumna P. Karan
Animal life
The forested areas of the Tarai are the home of tigers and
leopards, gaurs (wild ox), occasional elephants and buffalo, and many
deer; the deer include chital, or axis, deer (which have white-spotted
bodies), sambar (a large Asiatic deer with coarse hair on the throat and
strong antlers), and swamp deer. The Lesser Rāpti Valley, in
south-central Nepal, is one of the last homes of the great Indian
rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Much poaching has gone on, as the
horn of the rhinoceros is reputed to be valuable as an aphrodisiac, but
in the 1960s the Nepal government organized protective measures.
There are few wild animals in the central zone because of the
clearing of forests. Occasional leopards, bears, and smaller carnivores
inhabit the forests and ravines, and muntjacs (a kind of small deer,
also called the barking deer) are found in the woods. In the Alpine zone
are musk deer, widely hunted for the musk pods they carry, the tahr (a
Himalayan beardless wild goat), the goral (any of several goat
antelopes, closely related to the Rocky Mountain goat), and wild sheep,
which are preyed upon by wolves and snow leopards. Pheasant are common.
The Yeti (bear-man, or Abominable Snowman) is said by the Sherpa to
inhabit the high snow mountains but has eluded discovery by several
expeditions. Strange tracks are often found in the snow, but it is
believed that they are probably made by bears. River wildlife includes
the mahseer, a large freshwater food and sport fish.
Richard Riseley Proud
Matinuzzaman Zuberi
The people
The large-scale migrations of Asian groups from Tibet and
Indo-Aryan people from northern India, which accompanied the early
settlement of Nepal, have produced a diverse linguistic, ethnic, and
religious pattern. Nepalese of Indo-Aryan ancestry comprise the people
of the Tarai, the Pahari, the Newar, and the Tharus—the great majority
of the total population. Indo-Aryan ancestry has been a source of
prestige in Nepal for centuries, and the ruling families have been of
Indo-Aryan and Hindu background. Most of the Tibeto-Nepalese groups—the
Tamang, Rai, Limbu, Bhutia (including the Sherpa), and Sunwar—live in
the north and east, while the Magar and Gurung inhabit west-central
Nepal. The majority of the famous Gurkha contingents in the British army
have come from the Magar, Gurung, and Rai groups.
The principal and official language of Nepal is Nepālī (Gorkhali),
spoken in the Tarai and the mid-mountain region. Nepālī, a derivative of
Sanskrit, belongs to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European family.
There are a number of regional dialects found in the Tarai and mountain
areas. The languages of the north and east belong predominantly to the
Tibeto-Burman family. These include Magar, Gurung, Rai, Limbu, Sunwar,
Tamang, Newari, and a number of Bhutia dialects, including Sherpa and
Thakali. Although Newari is commonly placed in the Tibeto-Burman family,
it was influenced by both Tibeto-Burman and Indo-European languages.
In Nepal a vast majority of the population is Hindu, but a small
percentage follows Buddhism or other religious faiths. Hindus and
Buddhists tend to be concentrated in areas where Indian and Tibetan
cultural influences, respectively, have been dominant.
Almost all Nepalese live in villages or in small market centres.
Outside of Kāthmāndu, there are no major cities. Smaller urban centres
(Birātnagar, Nepālganj, and Birganj) are located in the Tarai along the
Indian border, and Pokharā is situated in a valley in the mid-mountain
region. In addition, a few townships—such as Hitaura, Būtwal, and
Dharān—have begun to emerge in the foothills and hill areas, where
economic activity has developed.
The economy
Landlocked, lacking substantial resources for economic development,
and hampered by an inadequate transportation network, Nepal is one of
the least developed nations in the world. The economy is heavily
dependent on imports of basic materials and on foreign markets for its
forest and agricultural products. Nepal imports essential commodities,
such as fuel, construction materials, fertilizers, metals, and most
consumer goods, and exports such products as rice, jute, timber, and
textiles.
The political and administrative system of Nepal has not made those
changes in trade, investment, and related economic policies that would
expedite economic development and attract foreign capital. The
government’s development programs, which are funded by foreign aid, also
have failed to respond directly to the needs of rural people.
Resources
Nepal’s mineral resources are small, scattered, and barely
developed. There are known deposits of coal (lignite), iron ore,
magnesite, copper, cobalt, pyrite (used for making sulfuric acid),
limestone, and mica. Nepal’s great river systems provide immense
potential for hydroelectric development. If developed and utilized
within the country and exported to India (the principal market for power
generated in Nepal), it could become a mainstay of the country’s
economy.
Agriculture
Agriculture—primarily the cultivation of rice, corn (maize), and
wheat—engages most of Nepal’s population and accounts for well over half
of the country’s export earnings. Yet agricultural productivity is very
low. The low yields result from shortages of fertilizers and improved
seed and from the use of inefficient techniques. Because only a tiny
percentage of Nepal’s cultivated land area is under irrigation, output
depends upon the vagaries of the weather. Potatoes, sugarcane, and
millet are other major crops. Cattle, buffalo, goats, and sheep are the
principal livestock raised.
On the whole, Nepal has a small surplus in food grains. There are,
however, major dislocations in supply and demand. Periods of shortage
between harvests of various crops occur in the mountain areas. At the
same time, substantial amounts of food grain are moved to India from the
Tarai. Because of the lack of adequate transportation, surplus food
grain from the Tarai does not move north into the food deficit areas of
the mid-mountain region. Some food grains move northward from the Tarai
and the mountain areas into Tibet, however, despite a shortage in the
mountain regions.
The greatest potential for increases in agricultural production is in
the Tarai. In the mid-mountain region the potential for increasing
production is limited. Because of the high population concentration in
this region, almost all land capable of cultivation is tilled.
Increasing the cultivated land area by cutting into standing forests
aggravates erosion and results in reduced yields and land losses by
landslides. Major projects have been undertaken in an effort to halt
soil erosion and deforestation.
Forestry
About one-third of Nepal’s total area is forested; most of this area
is state-owned. In spite of overcutting and poor management, timber
represents one of the country’s most valuable resources and is a major
source of potential revenue. Exports of forest products constitute an
important source of Indian rupees. Almost all timber is exported to
India. The sawmills of the Timber Corporation of Nepal, a
government-owned lumber-processing concern, supply Kāthmāndu Valley with
construction and furniture wood.
Industry and trade
Industrial production represents a small but growing segment of
economic activity. Most industries are small, localized operations based
on the processing of agricultural products. The jute industry, centred
in Birātnagar, is an important earner of foreign exchange. Sugar
factories are located in Birātnagar, Birganj, and Bhairahawā. There are
a sawmill and a meat-processing plant in Hitaura and a number of rice
and oil mills in the Tarai. Other industries include brick and tile
manufacture; processing of construction materials, paper, and food
grain; cigarette manufacture; cement production; and brewing of beer. In
general, there are more industrial enterprises in the private than in
the public sector, although most of these are cottage industries. The
main areas of manufacturing concentration are Birātnagar, the
Birganj–Hitaura corridor, and the Kāthmāndu Valley.
Tourism represents a small but expanding industry. Foreign tourism is
primarily confined to the Kāthmāndu Valley, which is the only area
equipped with the necessary hotels, food supplies, roads, and
international transport services. There are, however, many areas outside
the Kāthmāndu Valley with potential for the development of tourism;
these include Pokharā, the Mount Everest area, and the Nārāyani area
(where big game exists).
For geographic and historical reasons, nearly all of Nepal’s trade is
with India. Attempts have been made to diversify trade through
agreements with such countries as Japan, South Korea, Pakistan, the
United States, Germany, Poland, and China. The state trading agency,
National Trading Limited, has expanded its activities by fostering the
development of commercial entrepreneurial activity. Large-scale
commercial activity has hitherto been in the hands of foreigners,
primarily Indians.
Nepal’s foreign trade and balance of payments have suffered setbacks,
and exports have not increased enough to pay for imports of consumer
goods and basic supplies. Nepal’s dependence on the Indian market for
most of its imports and exports and on the port of Calcutta for its
access to the sea has been the source of periodic friction between the
two countries.
Transportation
Transport facilities in Nepal are very limited; few independent
nations in the world of comparable size have such little road mileage
and so few motor vehicles. Construction of new roads has been undertaken
since the 1970s with aid from India, China, Great Britain, and the
United States. The main means of transportation has been the network of
footpaths, which interlace the mountain terrain and valleys. Trails have
evolved into main trade routes, which tend to follow the river systems.
The meagre road-transport facilities in Nepal are supplemented by
only a few railway and air-transport links. Increased use of road
transport has reduced the significance of the two narrow-gauge railroads
that run from Amlekhganj to Raxaul (India) and from Janakpūr to Jaynagar
(India). The Royal Nepal Airline Corporation, an autonomous government
agency, is the only commercial airline. Together with Indian Airlines,
it operates flights from Kāthmāndu to various points in India and other
nearby countries. Domestic air service within the country has been
expanded. The United States built the Kāthmāndu–Hitaura aerial ropeway
in the 1950s, and it is still used for carrying goods into the capital.
Leo E. Rose
Administration and social conditions
Government
Although reforms in the 1950s began to move the kingdom toward a
democratic political system, the crown dissolved Parliament in 1960 and
subsequently banned political parties. Thereafter, Nepal became only
nominally a constitutional monarchy, and the constitution of 1962
(amended 1967, 1976, and 1980) effectively gave the king autocratic
control over a multitiered system of panchayats (local bodies, or
councils). In the 1980s, political restrictions were eased, and
organizations such as the Nepali Congress Party, the Communist Party of
Nepal, numerous small left-leaning student groups, and several radical
Nepalese antimonarchist groups were allowed to operate more or less
openly. Political parties, however, were not again legalized until 1990,
when nationwide unrest forced King Birendra to accept the formation of a
multiparty parliamentary system.
A new constitution promulgated on Nov. 9, 1990, greatly reduced the
power of the monarchy. The king remained the head of state, but
effective executive power was given to the Council of Ministers, headed
by the prime minister. Appointed by the king, the prime minister was
required to be either the leader of the majority party in the House of
Representatives (the lower house of Parliament) or, if there was no
majority party, a representative who could form a coalition majority.
The king was constitutionally also a part of Parliament and was
charged with giving assent to bills that had been passed by both
legislative chambers—the House of Representatives and the National
Council (the upper house). The House of Representatives consisted of 205
members popularly elected to five-year terms. The 60 members of the
National Council held six-year terms; 10 were nominated by the king, 35
were elected by the House of Representatives (of which 3 had to be
women), and 15 were selected by an electoral college. The constitution
gave the House of Representatives considerably more power than the
National Council.
All Nepalese citizens 18 and older are eligible to vote. Because most
voters in Nepal are illiterate, candidates largely have been chosen by
party symbol (e.g., a tree for the Nepali Congress Party and a sun for
the United Marxist-Leninist Party of Nepal). Some voters, moreover, have
had to travel long distances, in some cases for hours along mountain
paths, in order to reach a polling station.
Prior to 1990 the country was divided for administrative purposes
into 5 development regions, 14 zones, and 75 districts; in addition,
there were corresponding regional, zonal, and district courts, as well
as a Supreme Court. The 1990 constitution mandated the elimination of
the regional and zonal courts, which were to be replaced by appellate
courts. The administrative divisions themselves continued to exist as
provisional units.
The early 21st century was a tumultuous yet transformative period in
Nepal’s governmental history. A Maoist insurgency that had been gaining
strength since the late 1990s demanded not only the election of a
constituent assembly to draft a new constitution but also the abolition
of the monarchy. As the insurgents negotiated with the government,
tensions escalated into violence. Following intermittent peace talks,
abortive cease-fires, dissolution and reconstitution of the House of
Representatives, and major abrogation of the king’s authority, the
Maoists and the government finally agreed to the drafting of an interim
constitution—promulgated in January 2007—and the formation of an interim
administration. Elections for a constituent assembly of some 600 members
were held in April 2008, and the following month the monarchy was indeed
dissolved and Nepal declared a republic. Meanwhile, the country
continued to operate under an interim constitution that provided for a
unicameral legislature and a Council of Ministers, with most of the
power vested in the prime minister.
Ed.
Armed forces and police
Nepal’s armed forces consist of the Royal Nepalese Army,
predominantly an infantry force. The Army Flight Department operates all
aircraft. Except for a few simple weapons, all military supplies are
imported. Nepal is famous for the fighting qualities of its Gurkha
soldiers; nearly 10,000 of these serve in British Gurkha units, and
50,000 in Indian Gurkha units. The British maintain a recruiting centre
at Dharān. Gurkha veterans are a valuable human resource of Nepal.
For police purposes the country is divided into three zones: eastern,
central, and western, with headquarters at Birātnagar, Kāthmāndu, and
Nepālganj, respectively. Each zonal headquarters, under a deputy
inspector general of police, is responsible for several subsections
composed of four to five police districts operating under a
superintendent of police. A district superintendent is in charge of
police stations in his area, and each station normally is supervised by
a head constable.
Health and education
The Ministry of Health is responsible for the support and
administration of public health services, including hospitals and health
clinics. Although the government has taken steps to improve existing
health centres and to establish new ones, health care remains
inadequate. Malaria, tuberculosis, cholera, and typhoid are prevalent in
spite of government projects to control or eradicate them. Ayurvedic
medicine, the traditional Hindu system of medicine, is popular in Nepal.
The Ministry of Education and Culture is responsible for
administration and supervision of all elementary and secondary
education. Higher education has developed relatively recently. The first
college was established in 1918, and Tribhuvan University in Kāthmāndu,
with faculties of arts, sciences, commerce, and education, was chartered
in 1959. The University Senate has sole legal responsibility for higher
education and the authority to grant academic recognition to colleges
but is largely dependent upon the Ministry of Education for funds.
Cultural life
The relaxation of censorship that followed the overthrow of Rana
rule in 1951 encouraged a revival of artistic and intellectual
expression. In literature and poetry, Nepālī works emphasize the
cultural renaissance and national patriotism. King Mahendra, a poet
whose Nepālī lyrics have been published in English translation under the
name of M.B.B. Shah (for Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah), did much to promote
the revival of arts and literature.
The cultural heritage of Nepal, particularly contributions made by
the Newar of Kāthmāndu Valley to sculpture, painting, and architecture,
is a source of great pride. Hindu and Buddhist religious values have
provided the basic source of inspiration to Newar artisans. The themes
of most artistic works have been primarily religious; the lives of the
gods, saints, and heroes and the relationship of man to society and to
the universe are expounded in sculpture, architecture, and drama. In
Kāthmāndu Valley some 2,500 temples and shrines display the skill and
highly developed aesthetic sense of Newar artisans.
Music and dance are favourite pastimes among the Nepalese. Religious
ceremonies require the use of drums and wind instruments preserved from
ancient times. Important in most religious and family occasions are
devotional songs that have elements of both classical and folk music and
that have been used by some contemporary musical revivalists in their
attempt to bridge the gap between the two. The government-owned Radio
Nepal broadcasts programs in Nepālī and English. The country’s first
television station, at Kāthmāndu, began broadcasting in 1986.
Newspapers and periodicals are published in Nepālī and in English.
Newspapers are frequently sensational in tone and are poorly staffed and
financed. Gorkha Patra, published by the government, occupies a
commanding position in the Nepalese press. Nepalese newspaper readers
rely on the foreign press, particularly Indian newspapers, which are
flown daily into Kāthmāndu, for more sophisticated coverage of world and
national news.
After 1960 King Mahendra required newspapers to obtain official
clearance for all reports of political activity. Subsequently the
government increased its censorship, and in 1985 the publication of many
newspapers was suspended. In 1990, reflecting the change in the
country’s political climate, freedom of the press was restored.
Pradyumna P. Karan
History
Prehistory and early history
Nepal’s rich prehistory consists mainly of the legendary
traditions of the Newar, the indigenous community of Nepal Valley (now
usually called Kāthmāndu Valley). There are usually both Buddhist and
Brahmanic Hindu versions of these various legends. Both versions are
accepted indiscriminately in the festivals associated with legendary
events, a tribute to the remarkable synthesis that has been achieved in
Nepal between the two related but divergent value systems.
References to Nepal Valley and Nepal’s lower hill areas are found in
the ancient Indian classics, suggesting that the Central Himalayan hills
were closely related culturally and politically to the Gangetic Plain at
least 2,500 years ago. Lumbinī, Gautama Buddha’s birthplace in southern
Nepal, and Nepal Valley also figure prominently in Buddhist accounts.
There is substantial archaeological evidence of an early Buddhist
influence in Nepal, including a famous column inscribed by Ashoka
(emperor of India, 3rd century bce) at Lumbinī and several shrines in
the valley.
A coherent dynastic history for Nepal Valley becomes possible, though
with large gaps, with the rise of the Licchavi dynasty in the 4th or 5th
century ce. Although the earlier Kirati dynasty had claimed the status
of the Kshatriya caste of rulers and warriors, the Licchavis were
probably the first ruling family in that area of plains Indian origin.
This set a precedent for what became the normal pattern thereafter—Hindu
kings claiming high-caste Indian origin ruling over a population much of
which was neither Indo-Aryan nor Hindu.
The Licchavi dynastic chronicles, supplemented by numerous stone
inscriptions, are particularly full from 500 to 700 ce; a powerful,
unified kingdom also emerged in Tibet during this period, and the
Himalayan passes to the north of the valley were opened. Extensive
cultural, trade, and political relations developed across the Himalayas,
transforming the valley from a relatively remote backwater into the
major intellectual and commercial centre between South and Central Asia.
Nepal’s contacts with China began in the mid-7th century with the
exchange of several missions. But intermittent warfare between Tibet and
China terminated this relationship; and, while there were briefly
renewed contacts in subsequent centuries, these were reestablished on a
continuing basis only in the late 18th century.
Middle period
The middle period in Nepalese history is usually considered
coterminous with the rule of the Malla dynasty (10th–18th century) in
Nepal Valley and surrounding areas. Although most of the Licchavi kings
were devout Hindus, they did not impose Brahmanic social codes or values
on their non-Hindu subjects; the Mallas perceived their responsibilities
differently, however, and the great Malla ruler Jaya Sthiti (reigned c.
1382–95) introduced the first legal and social code strongly influenced
by contemporary Hindu principles.
Jaya Sthiti’s successor, Yakṣa Malla (reigned c. 1429–c. 1482),
divided his kingdom among his three sons, thus creating the independent
principalities of Kāthmāndu, Pātan, and Bhaktpūr (Bhādgāon) in the
valley. Each of these states controlled territory in the surrounding
hill areas, with particular importance attached to the trade routes
northward to Tibet and southward to India that were vital to the
valley’s economy. There were also numerous small principalities in the
western and eastern hill areas, whose independence was sustained through
a delicate balance of power based upon traditional interrelationships
and, in some cases, common ancestral origins (or claims thereto) among
the ruling families. By the 16th century virtually all these
principalities were ruled by dynasties claiming high-caste Indian origin
whose members had fled to the hills in the wake of Muslim invasions of
northern India.
In the early 18th century one of the principalities—Gorkha (also
spelled Gurkha), ruled by the Shah family—began to assert a predominant
role in the hills and even to pose a challenge to Nepal Valley. The
Mallas, weakened by familial dissension and widespread social and
economic discontent, were no match for the great Gorkha ruler Prithvi
Narayan Shah. He conquered the valley in 1769 and moved his capital to
Kāthmāndu shortly thereafter, providing the foundation for the modern
state of Nepal.
Modern period
The Shah (or Sah) rulers faced tremendous and persistent problems
in trying to centralize an area long characterized by extreme diversity
and ethnic and regional parochialism. They established a centralized
political system by absorbing dominant regional and local elites into
the central administration at Kāthmāndu. This action neutralized
potentially disintegrative political forces and involved them in
national politics, but it also severely limited the centre’s authority
in outlying areas because local administration was based upon a
compromise division of responsibilities between the local elites and the
central administration.
From 1775 to 1951, Nepalese politics was characterized by
confrontations between the royal family and several noble families. The
position of the Shah dynasty was weakened by the fact that the two kings
who ruled successively between 1777 and 1832 were minors when they
ascended the throne. The regents and the nobility competed for political
power, using the young rulers as puppets; both factions wanted a
monopoly of political offices and power for their families, with their
rivals exterminated, exiled to India, or placed in a subordinate status.
This was achieved by the Thapa family (1806–37) and, even more
extensively, by the Rana family (1846–1951). In these periods, the Shah
ruler was relegated to an honorary position without power, while
effective authority was concentrated in the hands of the leading members
of the dominant family. Although intrafamilial arrangements on such
questions as the succession and the distribution of responsibilities and
spoils were achieved, no effective national political institutions were
created. The excluded noble families had only two alternatives—to accept
inferior posts in the administration and army or to conspire for the
overthrow of the dominant family. Until 1950 and to some extent
thereafter, Nepalese politics was basically conspiratorial in character,
with familial loyalty taking precedence over loyalty to the crown or
nation.
External relations, 1750–1950
Prithvi Narayan Shah (reigned 1742–75) and his successors
established a unified state in the central Himalayas and launched an
ambitious and remarkably vigorous program of expansion, seeking to bring
the entire hill area, from Bhutan to Kashmir, under their authority.
They made considerable progress, but successive setbacks in wars with
China and Tibet (1788–92), with the Sikh kingdom in the Punjab (1809),
with British India (1814–16), and again with Tibet (1854–56) frustrated
Nepal and set the present boundaries of the kingdom.
The British conquest of India in the 19th century posed a serious
threat to Nepal—which expected to be another victim—and left the country
with no real alternative but to seek an accommodation with the British
to preserve its independence. This was accomplished by the Rana family
regime after 1860 on terms that were mutually acceptable, if
occasionally irritating, to both. Under this de facto alliance,
Kāthmāndu permitted the recruitment of Nepalese for the highly valued
Gurkha units in the British Indian Army and also accepted British
“guidance” on foreign policy; in exchange, the British guaranteed the
Rana regime against both foreign and domestic enemies and allowed it
virtual autonomy in domestic affairs. Nepal, however, was also careful
to maintain a friendly relationship with China and Tibet, both for
economic reasons and to counterbalance British predominance in South
Asia.
The British withdrawal from India in 1947 deprived the Ranas of a
vital external source of support and exposed the regime to new dangers.
Anti-Rana forces, composed mainly of Nepalese residents in India who had
served their political apprenticeship in the Indian nationalist
movement, formed an alliance with the Nepalese royal family, led by King
Tribhuvan (reigned 1911–55), and launched a revolution in November 1950.
With strong diplomatic support from New Delhi, the rebels accepted a
settlement with the Ranas under which the sovereignty of the crown was
restored and the revolutionary forces, led by the Nepali Congress (NC)
party, gained an ascendant position in the administration.
Nepal since 1950
The introduction of a democratic political system in Nepal, a
country accustomed to autocracy and with no deep democratic tradition or
experience, proved a formidable task. A constitution was finally
approved in 1959, under which general elections for a national assembly
were held. The NC won an overwhelming victory and was entrusted with the
formation of Nepal’s first popular government. But persistent
controversy between the Cabinet and King Mahendra (reigned 1955–72) led
the king to dismiss the Nepali Congress government in December 1960 and
to imprison most of the party’s leaders. The constitution of 1959 was
abolished in 1962, and a new constitution was promulgated that
established the crown as the real source of authority. King Mahendra
obtained both Indian and Chinese acceptance of his regime, and the
internal opposition was weak, disorganized, and discouraged. Mahendra
died in January 1972 and was succeeded by his son Birendra, who was
crowned in 1975.
Throughout the 1970s King Birendra sought to expedite economic
development programs while maintaining the “nonparty” political system
established by his father. The results were disappointing on both
accounts, and by 1979 a systemic crisis was evident. To meet the first
serious political challenge to the monarchy since 1960, King Birendra
announced in May 1979 that a national referendum would be held to decide
between a nonparty and multiparty (by implication, parliamentary)
political system. In the referendum, which was held in May 1980, the
political groups supporting the existing nonparty system won by the
relatively small margin of 55 percent, accurately reflecting the sharp
differences in the country on basic political issues.
It was in this context that King Birendra decided in 1980 to retain
the 1962 constitution but to liberalize the political system by
providing for direct popular election of the National Assembly. The
government also permitted the “illegal” political parties, such as the
NC, to function under only minimal constraints. Elections were still
formally held on a “partyless” basis, but many candidates ran informally
and openly as members of political parties.
This partial movement toward a democratic parliamentary system
satisfied neither the supporters of a multiparty constitutional monarchy
nor several more radical leftist factions, and in February 1990 a
coalition of centrist and leftist opposition forces began a campaign
demanding basic political reforms. A series of protests and strikes
followed nationwide, and the royal government’s efforts to suppress the
movement with force were ineffectual. In April, as the situation in
Kāthmāndu Valley worsened, King Birendra lifted the ban on political
parties, abrogated the more repressive security ordinances, and on April
16 appointed a coalition interim government headed by the president of
the NC, K.S. Bhattarai, but also including the moderate faction of the
communist movement, the United Leftist Front.
The policy objectives of the interim government were “to maintain law
and order, develop a multiparty system on the basis of constitutional
monarchy, draft a new constitution, and hold general elections” to a
parliament. Within a year, all four tasks were accomplished with
remarkable success despite the broad divergence of views among the major
political organizations. A draft of the new constitution, prepared by a
broadly representative government commission, was submitted to the
Palace and the Cabinet on September 10, 1990. In November, following two
months of vigorous debate on a number of key issues—including the role
of the king, the development of a secular state, emergency powers, and
the status of Nepal’s many languages—an amended version of the
constitution was promulgated by King Birendra that provided for both a
constitutional monarchy and a multiparty parliamentary political system.
General elections held on May 12, 1991, gave the NC a majority in
Parliament (110 of 205 seats), but the moderate Communist Party of Nepal
(Unified Marxist-Leninist)—CPN (UML)—with 69 seats, emerged as a strong
opposition party. The two “Pancha” parties usually associated with the
old system won only four seats. The elections were thus perceived to
constitute a strong endorsement of the 1990 political changes, and G.P.
Koirala, the brother of Nepal’s first elected prime minister (1959–60),
was nominated by the NC and appointed by the king to head the new
elected government.
Nepal emerged from this period of rapid political change facing a
multitude of economic and social problems; among these were a stagnant
economy and a variety of regional ethnic and religious movements, some
of whose basic demands were not acceptable to the country’s Hindu
majority. Although overwhelming support existed for the new democratic
constitutional monarchy system, at both the party and the public level,
the democratic movement itself remained badly fractionalized and
antagonistic, making more difficult the new government’s attempt to
introduce the kind of hard-hitting economic and social policies the
panchayat governments had carefully avoided in an effort to mollify
several small but important interest groups.
Leo E. Rose
The country’s political life since 1990 has been marked by
instability. The government was largely in the hands of the NC with
brief periods of CPN (UML) control. However, the NC’s leadership
squabbled frequently, and the party splintered early in the 21st
century. The killing in 2001 of the king and most members of the royal
family by the crown prince (who also died, from self-inflicted wounds)
further heightened tensions, and, after the massacre, Koirala, who was
serving his third term as prime minister, was forced to resign.
Meanwhile, a group of Maoist rebels emerged in the 1990s and rapidly
grew in number and strength. The rebels often used violent tactics to
champion the cause of the rural poor and advocated overthrowing the
monarchy. By the early 21st century the Maoists not only posed a serious
threat to the government but had virtually propelled the country into a
state of civil war. Koirala was reelected to a fourth term as prime
minister in April 2006, and later that year the government of Nepal and
the Maoist insurgency signed a UN-mediated peace accord that provided
for temporary representation of the Maoists in the Council of Ministers,
restricted the rebel army to camps, and required both the Maoists and
the Nepalese army to lock equal amounts of their arms in UN-monitored
containers.
An interim constitution, which transferred all executive power to the
prime minister, was to remain in effect until the weapons management
plan had been completed, elections had been held, and a permanent
constitution had been drafted to replace the 1990 document. The extent
of the duties of the king as head of state was to be determined by an
elected constituent assembly, which would also draft a new constitution.
Elections for the assembly, originally scheduled for June 2007, were
postponed several times, notably after the Maoists pulled out of the
government, demanding the immediate dissolution of the monarchy. In
December 2007 it was finally agreed that the monarchy would be
abolished, and elections were held in April 2008. The Maoists won the
most seats, and on May 28, 2008, more than two centuries of royal rule
came to an end as the new assembly voted to declare Nepal a democratic
republic. Elections for prime minister were held in August, with Maoist
leader Pushpa Kamal Dahal, popularly known as Prachanda, winning by a
wide margin and forming a coalition government. However, the coalition
failed in early May 2009, and Prachanda resigned.
Ed.
