Democratic People's Republic of Korea
 

Overview
Country, East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean peninsula.

Area: 47,399 sq mi (122,762 sq km). Population (2008 est.): 23,837,000. Capital: P’yŏngyang. Ethnically, the population is almost completely Korean. Language: Korean (official). Religions: Ch’ŏndogyo, traditional beliefs, Christianity, Buddhism. Foreign missionaries were expelled during World War II. Currency: won. North Korea’s land area largely consists of mountain ranges and uplands; its highest peak is Mount Paektu (9,022 ft [2,750 m]). North Korea has a centrally planned economy based on heavy industry (iron and steel, machinery, chemicals, and textiles) and agriculture. Cooperative farms raise crops such as rice, corn, barley, and vegetables. The country is rich in mineral resources, including coal, iron ore, and magnesite. It is a republic with one legislature; the head of state and government is the chairman of the National Defense Commission. For early history, see Korea. After the Japanese were defeated in World War II, the Soviet Union occupied Korea north of latitude 38° N; there the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea was established as a communist state in 1948. Seeking to unify the peninsula by force, it launched an invasion of South Korea in 1950, initiating the Korean War. UN troops intervened on the side of South Korea, and Chinese soldiers reinforced the North Korean army in the war, which ended with an armistice in 1953. Led by Kim Il-sung, North Korea became one of the most harshly regimented societies in the world, with a state-owned economy that failed to produce adequate supplies of food and consumer goods for its citizens. Under his son and successor, Kim Jong Il, the country endured periods of severe food shortages from the late 1990s that caused widespread famine. Hopes that North Korea was seeking to end its long isolation—notably through meetings between Kim and the leaders of South Korea (2000) and Japan (2002)—have been tempered by concerns over its nuclear weapons program.

Profile
Official name Chosŏn Minjujuŭi In’min Konghwaguk (Democratic People’s Republic of Korea)
Form of government unitary single-party republic with one legislative house (Supreme People’s Assembly [687])
Head of state and government Chairman of the National Defense Commission1
Capital P’yŏngyang
Official language Korean
Official religion none
Monetary unit (North Korean) won (W)
Population estimate (2008) 23,867,000
Total area (sq mi) 47,399
Total area (sq km) 122,762
1Position in effect from Sept. 5, 1998, is the declared “highest office of state.” It is defined as an enhanced military post with revised constitutional powers.

Main

country in East Asia. It occupies the northern portion of the Korean peninsula, which juts out from the Asian mainland between the East Sea (Sea of Japan) and the Yellow Sea; North Korea covers about 55 percent of the peninsula’s land area. The country is bordered by China and Russia to the north and by the Republic of Korea (South Korea) to the south. The national capital, P’yŏngyang, is a major industrial and transport centre near the west coast.

North Korea faces South Korea across a demilitarized zone (DMZ) 2.5 miles (4 km) wide that was established by the terms of the 1953 armistice that ended fighting in the Korean War (1950–53). The DMZ, which runs for about 150 miles (240 km), constitutes the 1953 military cease-fire line and roughly follows latitude 38° N (the 38th parallel) from the mouth of the Han River on the west coast of the Korean peninsula to a little south of the North Korean town of Kosŏng on the east coast.

 

Land

Relief
Mountains and valleys characterize most of North Korea. The Kaema Highlands in the northeast have an average elevation of 3,300 feet (1,000 metres) above sea level and form the topographic roof of the entire Korean peninsula. Mount Paektu (9,022 feet [2,750 metres]), the highest mountain in North Korea and on the peninsula, rises at the northern edge of this plateau in the Changbaek (Changbai) Mountains along the Sino-Korean border; it is an extinct volcano topped by a large crater lake. The Nangnim Mountains run from north to south through the middle of the country, forming a divide between the eastern and western slopes of the peninsula. The Kangnam and Myohyang ranges and Mounts Ŏnjin and Myŏrak, all structural extensions of the Nangnim Mountains, extend parallel to each other toward the southwest. Large river-valley plains have developed between the western mountains; they merge along the narrow, irregular coastal plain on the west coast. The Hamgyŏng Mountains, extending from the Nangnim Mountains to the northeast, form a steep slope between the Kaema Highlands and the East Sea. The T’aebaek Mountains extend from southeastern North Korea into South Korea along the eastern coast; one peak, Mount Kŭmgang (5,374 feet [1,638 metres]), is renowned for its scenic beauty.

Drainage and soils
The longest river of North Korea is the Yalu, in Korean called the Amnok. It rises on the southern slope of Mount Paektu and flows southwestward for some 500 miles (800 km) to its mouth on Korea Bay. The Tumen (Tuman) River also begins at Mount Paektu but runs northeastward for about 325 miles (520 km) to the East Sea. There are no large streams along the east coast except for the Tumen River, and all the significant rivers, such as the Yalu, Ch’ŏngch’ŏn, Taedong, Chaeryŏng, and Yesŏng, drain to the Yellow Sea. The relatively large valley plains of the western rivers are major agricultural regions.

More than three-fifths of the soils are locally derived from the weathering of granitic rocks or various kinds of schists (crystalline rocks). The soils are generally brownish, abundant in sandy materials, and low in fertility. Well-developed reddish brown soils derived from limestone are found in North Hwanghae province and the southern part of South P’yŏngan province. Podzols (ash-gray forest soil) have developed in the Kaema Highlands as a result of the cold climate and coniferous forest cover there. Although most of the soils are infertile and lack organic content, the valleys and coastal plains have relatively rich alluvial soils.

Climate
North Korea has a generally cool continental climate. The winter season, from December to March, is long and cold; mean temperatures in January range between about 20 °F (−7 °C) in the south and −10 °F (−23 °C) in the northern interior. The summer, from June to September, is warm, with mean July temperatures above the upper 60s F (about 20 °C) in most places. Accordingly, the annual range of temperatures is large—about 54 °F (30 °C) at P’yŏngyang and about 77 °F (43 °C) at Chunggang (Chunggangjin), where the lowest temperature in the Korean peninsula, −46.5 °F (−43.6 °C), has been recorded. Because of ocean currents and the mountain ranges bordering the narrow coastal lowlands, winter temperatures on the east coast are some 5 to 7 °F (3 to 4 °C) higher than those of the west coast.

Most of the country receives about 40 inches (1,000 mm) of precipitation annually. The northern inland plateau, however, receives only about 24 inches (610 mm) and the lower reaches of the Taedong River valley 32 inches (810 mm), while the upper Ch’ŏngch’ŏn River area averages between about 48 and 52 inches (1,220 and 1,320 mm) yearly. Some three-fifths of the annual precipitation falls in the four months from June to September; this heavy concentration of rainfall is related to the humid summer monsoon from the Pacific Ocean, which also produces occasional typhoons (tropical cyclones). Only a small portion of the total precipitation occurs in winter, generally as snow; snowfall can be locally heavy, as in the T’aebaek Mountains. There are about 200 frost-free days along the coast but fewer than 120 in the northern Kaema Highlands.

Plant and animal life
Vegetation on the highlands, especially around Mount Paektu, consists of coniferous trees such as the Siberian fir, spruce, pine, and Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis). The western lowlands were originally covered by temperate mixed forests with many types of plants, but continuous deforestation has left only remote patches of the original forests. Most of the lowlands are now cultivated, except for some of the hills that are covered with small pine groves mixed with oaks, lindens, maples, and birches. Along streams that are subject to flooding or where the ground is too stony for cultivation, reeds, sedges, wild mulberry trees, and Italian poplars are found. Common river fish include carp and eels.

Because of deforestation, the populations of deer, mountain antelope, goats, tigers, and leopards have greatly decreased and are restricted to the remote forests. In the plains, however, it is still possible to see wild pigeons, herons, cranes (which nest near areas of human habitation), and many migratory waterfowl, which alight in the rice fields.

The DMZ between North and South Korea has become a de facto nature preserve. Once farmland and subsequently a devastated battleground, the DMZ has lain almost untouched since the end of hostilities in 1953 and has reverted to nature to a large extent, making it one of the most pristine undeveloped areas in Asia. The zone contains many ecosystems including forests, estuaries, and wetlands frequented by migratory birds. It serves as a sanctuary for hundreds of bird species, among them the endangered white-naped and red-crowned cranes, and is home to dozens of fish species and Asiatic black bears, lynxes, and other mammals.

People

Ethnic groups and languages
The Korean peninsula is one of the most ethnically homogeneous regions in the world. The North Korean population, which has been largely isolated since 1945, is almost entirely Korean; a tiny number of Chinese constitute the only other significant ethnic group. All Koreans speak the Korean language, whose relationship to other languages is disputed; it may be related to Japanese or languages of the Altaic group, and it contains many Chinese loanwords. The Korean script, known in North Korea as Chosŏn muntcha and in South Korea as han’gŭl (Hangul), is composed of phonetic symbols for the 10 vowels and 14 consonants. In North Korea a systematic effort has been made to eliminate Chinese and Western loanwords, as well as any vestiges of the Japanese imposed during the colonial period, and Chosŏn muntcha has been used exclusively without Chinese characters in newspapers and other publications since 1945.

Religion
Historically, the way of life and the value system of Koreans were based fundamentally on Confucian thought. To a lesser extent, Buddhism was also important. Roman Catholic and Protestant missionaries arrived in the 18th and 19th centuries, respectively; Sunch’ŏn and P’yŏngyang were major centres of Christian activities. The Japanese occupation beginning in the early 20th century brought increasing repression of Christianity, and by the end of World War II there were no foreign missionaries left in the country.

The monotheistic religion of Ch’ŏndogyo (“Teaching of the Heavenly Way”), originally known as Tonghak (“Eastern Learning”), was founded by the Confucian teacher Ch’oe Che-u in 1860. A combination largely of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Christianity, Ch’ŏndogyo played a leading role in the March 1st Movement of 1919. Shamanism—the religious belief in gods, demons, and ancestral spirits responsive to a priest, or shaman—existed in Korea before the introduction of Buddhism and Confucianism; its practice has nearly died out in North Korea.

The communist regime has constitutionally confirmed freedom of religion but does not practice it. Ch’ŏndogyo, however, has been used for propaganda purposes, and from the late 20th century Christianity was sometimes used as a means for contact with South Korea and the West. After the Korean War, churches and Buddhist temples were confiscated and looted, and many were converted to other purposes. Religious activity generally has remained under state control, although in the late 20th and early 21st centuries there was some increase in independent practices.

Settlement patterns
Close examination reveals numerous distinct settlement regions, each with a different natural environment and historical background. North Korea now has nine provinces, but during the Chosŏn (Yi) dynasty (1392–1910) the unified country had eight. Of those, North Korea contains what were the three provinces of P’yŏngan, Hwanghae, and Hamgyŏng and the northern parts of Kangwŏn and Kyŏnggi provinces. Each province not only was a political unit but also had characteristics of a cultural region in terms of dialect, customs, and way of life. North Korea may also be divided into the two larger traditional regions: Kwansŏ to the west and Kwanbuk to the east, roughly divided by the Nangnim Mountains. Kwansŏ comprises the current provinces of North P’yŏngan, South P’yŏngan, North Hwanghae, South Hwanghae, and Chagang, while Kwanbuk includes North Hamgyŏng, South Hamgyŏng, Yanggang, and Kangwŏn provinces.

Most of the rural population inhabits the eastern and western coastal lowlands and river-valley plains. The inland areas of Chagang and Yanggang provinces are sparsely settled because of the lack of arable land and the cold climate, which does not permit the cultivation of rice. Villages in the lowlands and valley plains usually are clustered together at the bases of the southern slopes of hills, which offer protection against the cold northwesterly winter wind. Scattered fields are tilled by a small number of shifting cultivators in the Kaema Highlands, especially in Yanggang province. The upper Yalu and Tumen river valleys contain settlements associated with lumbering, and fishing villages are numerous along the coasts, especially on the east side of the peninsula.

Cities that developed during the Japanese occupation (1910–45) were largely associated with the exploitation of natural resources, industry, and transportation. The communist regime’s heavy emphasis on manufacturing resulted in the continuous expansion of the early industrial centres and caused a population flow into the urban areas from the countryside. Most of the cities were destroyed during the Korean War (1950–53) and have since been rebuilt. Urbanization increased rapidly after the war, especially in the period 1953–60. P’yŏngyang is by far North Korea’s largest city, its population greatly outnumbering Namp’o, the second largest city. Other major cities include Hamhŭng, Ch’ŏngjin, and Kaesŏng.

Demographic trends
North Korea’s population grew fairly rapidly after the Korean War, more than doubling in size between 1953 and 1993. Although the rate of population increase began slowing in the late 20th century, it is nearly twice that of South Korea. North Korea, however, can be considered underpopulated by East Asian standards, with an overall density of only about two-fifths that in the South. The infant mortality rate is considerably higher than in the South.

The population of North Korea is unevenly distributed, with heavy concentrations along the coastlines and only sparse settlement in the interior. This imbalance has been exacerbated by the government’s emphasis on industrialization since 1945, which has promoted migration to the cities and, conversely, has produced a severe farm labour shortage. Large numbers of Koreans emigrated from the peninsula during the first half of the 20th century, mainly to China, Siberia, Japan, and the United States. In the 1960s and ’70s North Korea conducted a campaign to repatriate Koreans living in Japan; more than 90,000 people took part in the program. North Korea’s recurrent food crises—compounded by the government’s reported practice of political persecution, including the denial of food to certain groups of people for political reasons—have caused many people to escape to China. Estimates of the number of North Korean refugees in China in the early 21st century ranged from 10,000 to 300,000. .

Economy
North Korea has a command (centralized) economy. The state controls all means of production, and the government sets priorities and emphases in economic development. Since 1954, economic policy has been promulgated through a series of national economic plans. The early plans gave high priority to postwar reconstruction and the development of heavy industries, especially chemicals and metals. Subsequent plans focused on resource exploitation and improving technology, mechanization, and infrastructure. Little attention was given to agriculture until the 1970s, and it was not until the late 1980s that much effort was made to improve the quality and quantity of consumer goods.

Reliable information on the performance of the North Korean economy usually has been lacking. Outside observers have concluded that the country has consistently failed to meet its stated goals and that production statistics released by the government often have been inflated. Thus, although North Korea has made strong efforts to transform an essentially agrarian economy into one centred on modern industry in the post-Korean War years, it is generally believed that the country has been only partially successful.

North Korea’s economic goals have always been linked to the general government policy of self-reliance (juche, or chuch’e). The country shunned foreign investment, although it accepted considerable economic aid from the Soviet Union and its satellite eastern European countries as well as from China. Despite its stated policy of self-reliance, North Korea routinely found it necessary to import such essential commodities as fuels and machinery as well as grain.

By the early 1990s, North Korea had begun to experience severe economic hardships. The Soviet Union had collapsed, and the communist regimes of its eastern European allies had fallen, depriving North Korea of most of its trading partners and much of its former aid. China reduced but did not completely cut off its provision of materials to North Korea, but in 1992 it began to demand cash payments in place of grants-in-aid or credit accounts. In addition, in the mid-1990s the country suffered a series of natural disasters, including floods and drought. Serious grain and food shortages resulted, and starvation and malnutrition were widespread throughout the country.

The situation improved somewhat by the end of the decade because of a massive infusion of international food assistance. In July 2002 the government proclaimed a new policy intended to deal with the huge gap that had developed between the official economy and the so-called “real people’s economy” (i.e., a black market), which was in the throes of runaway inflation. But the measures served only as a temporary stopgap; well into the first decade of the 21st century, the highest priority of the government remained the solution of what it called “the food problem.”

In addition to North Korea’s acceptance of foreign aid during the 1990s, its poor economic performance during the decade forced the government to begin opening up the economy to limited foreign investment and increased trade. By the end of that decade, North Korea was actively inviting foreign investment from European Union (EU) countries, South Korea, and others. It was more receptive to discussions with EU and Commonwealth countries than it was to the United States, Japan, and South Korea—the latter three countries having been much more at odds diplomatically and strategically with North Korea since the Korean War (in the case of Japan, since the colonial period) than the others. However, since those three countries have been the main sources of foreign aid in the early 21st century, North Korea has maintained at least minimal contact with each of them.

Efforts have been made throughout North Korea’s history to increase low labour productivity. In the late 1950s the state adopted a mass-mobilization measure called the Ch’ŏllima (“Flying Horse”) movement that was patterned on China’s Great Leap Forward of 1958–60. Subsequently, in the early 1960s, programs were instituted in agricultural and industrial management, called respectively the Ch’ongsan-ni Method and Taean Work System. In the late 1990s the country adopted the official goal of building a strong military and a prosperous economy, adopting the motto “Kangsŏng taeguk” (“Strong and prosperous nation”). Under this slogan Kim Jong Il paid meticulous attention to the military, his primary base of power, while opening parts of the economy to accommodate foreign investment and trade. North Korea even allowed parts of its territory to be used by foreign (South Korean) businesses, including the sightseeing areas around Mount Kŭmgang, in the southeast, and the Kaesŏng Industrial Complex, in the southwest. However, the operation of these enclosed and restricted areas, known as special economic districts (gyŏngje t’ŭkgu), was conducted strictly under North Korean supervision and was only for the purpose of collecting foreign currencies (mainly U.S. dollars), not as part of the country’s overall economic activity.

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing
By 1958 all privately owned farms were incorporated into more than 3,000 cooperatives; each cooperative comprises about 300 families on about 1,200 acres (500 hectares). The farm units are controlled by management committees, which issue orders to the work teams, set the type and amount of seed and fertilizer to be used, and establish production quotas. Produce is delivered to the government, which controls distribution through state stores. There are also state and provincial model farms for research and development.

Agriculture contributes a decreasing proportion to the national economy, but there has been an overall increase in cultivated land, irrigation projects, the use of chemical fertilizers, and mechanization. Nonetheless, since the early 1990s, North Korea has had a chronic shortage of chemical fertilizers, seed grains, and farming equipment. Farmers are paid for their labour in money or in kind and are allowed to keep chickens, bees, fruit trees, and gardens. In theory, farmers can sell surplus produce at local markets that are held periodically, but with the food crisis that began in the mid-1990s, any surplus above the subsistence level disappeared. Although farmers fared relatively better than most urban workers during the lean years, even they struggled for survival.

The main food crops are grains—notably rice, corn (maize), wheat, and barley. The country formerly produced enough rice for domestic consumption, but some is now imported. Wheat had to be imported even before the period of food shortages, although wheat productivity increased after the mid-1950s. Potatoes, sweet potatoes, soybeans and other beans, vegetables, and tree fruits are raised extensively. Industrial crops include tobacco, cotton, flax, and rape (an herb grown for its oilseeds). Livestock raising is concentrated in areas poorly suited for crop raising. Livestock production has increased steadily, especially poultry production, over the country’s history. However, all sectors of agricultural production were drastically affected during the food crisis.

The northern interior contains large forest reserves of larch, spruce, and pine trees. Most of the coastal slopes have been extensively deforested, however, much of this having been done by the Japanese during World War II; reforestation programs have stressed economic forestry. Forestry production, after having declined following the war, has not grown substantially. Much of the wood cut is used as firewood. During the severe fuel shortage that accompanied the years of economic crisis, North Koreans indiscriminately—and often illegally—cut down trees for firewood. Many hillsides in the country are now barren; the loss of forest cover contributes to massive flooding in the monsoon season, which in turn leads to poor harvests and further economic hardships.

The sea is the main source of protein for North Koreans, and the government has continually expanded commercial fishing. Most fishing activity centres on the coastal areas on each side of the peninsula, although there was an increase in deep-sea fishing beginning in the late 20th century. The main species caught include pollack, sardines, mackerel, herring, pike, yellowtail, and shellfish. Aquaculture represents about one-fourth of the country’s fish production.

Resources and power
North Korea contains the great bulk of all known mineral deposits on the peninsula. It is estimated that some 200 minerals are of economic value. Most important are iron ore and coal, although greater emphasis has been given to the extraction of gold, magnesite (magnesium carbonate), lead, and zinc. Other abundant minerals include tungsten, graphite, barite (barium sulfate), and molybdenum.

Large, high-grade iron ore reserves are mined in North and South Hwanghae, South P’yŏngan, and South Hamgyŏng provinces, while deposits at Musan, North Hamgyŏng province, are of lower quality. Rich deposits of anthracite (hard coal) occur along the Taedong River—notably at Anju, north of P’yŏngyang—and near Paegam in Yanggang province. There also are lesser amounts of lignite (brown coal) in the far northeast and at Anju. North Korea’s magnesite deposits, the largest in the world, are centred on Tanch’ŏn, in South Hamgyŏng province.

Industrial development is related to the country’s large supply of electric power. During the Japanese regime hydroelectric power resources were heavily developed along the Yalu River and its upper tributaries. Power production is still based mainly on hydroelectricity, but thermal electricity is becoming important because of lower construction costs and the unreliability of hydroelectric power during the dry season. However, since the 1990s the production of electricity has declined to a critical level because of the general failure of the national economy.

Manufacturing
The industrial sector is organized into state-owned enterprises and production cooperatives, the latter being confined largely to handicrafts, marine processing, and other small-scale operations. The most important industries are iron and steel, machinery, chemicals, and textiles. Iron and steel production initially was centred at Songnim and Ch’ŏngjin but has been expanded to include the large integrated mill at Kimch’aek. Industrial and agricultural machinery is manufactured at Kangsŏn, near P’yŏngyang, and several other cities, including Hŭich’ŏn. The production of chemicals is focused on fertilizers and petrochemicals, much of the latter being manufactured in the Anju area north of P’yŏngyang. The textile industry is centred at P’yŏngyang, Sinŭiju, and Sunch’ŏn. Other products include cement, armaments, vehicles, glass, ceramics, and some consumer goods (mainly clothing and processed food).

Finance and other services
The North Korean won is the official currency, and the Central Bank of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea is the sole bank of issue. It receives all national revenues and precious metals and provides government agencies with working capital. There are several other state banks, all supervised by the Central Bank. Among these is the Foreign Trade Bank, which handles all foreign transactions and currencies. A limited amount of joint-venture banking was allowed beginning in the late 1980s, and later private and corporate savings accounts for nonresidents were also permitted.

The government maintains strict control over tourism. Most visitors come from Asia, particularly from China, with which North Korea maintains close relations. Tourists, especially those from the West, are tightly restricted in their movements and are accompanied by official North Korean guides. The sector developed in a new direction beginning in 1998 by accepting organized admission-paying tourist groups originating from South Korea (comprising various nationalities, including Western tourists) to the Mount Kŭmgang area and the Kaesŏng Industrial Complex, two of the country’s special economic districts.

Trade
Foreign trade has expanded and diversified slowly. At first trade was conducted only with the Soviet Union and China, but since the 1960s it has been allowed with a growing number of countries. Major trading partners include China, South Korea, Russia, Japan, and Thailand. Trade with South Korea is promoted mainly by private corporations. A free-trade zone, another of North Korea’s special economic districts, was established in the late 1990s in Najin Sŏnbong, in the northern province of North Hamgyŏng. Imports mainly consist of beverages, food and other agricultural products, mineral fuels, machinery, and textiles. Exports include live animals and agricultural products, textiles and apparel, machinery, and mineral fuels and lubricants.

Transportation
In general, the transport system in North Korea is stagnant, since the infrastructure is worn out and the energy supply is limited. No major highways or rail lines have been built since the late 20th century. With the economic decline in the 1990s, demand on the transportation networks shrank. It subsequently increased during this period, as many people were forced to leave their homes in search of food and income—putting pressure on an inadequate and outdated transportation infrastructure. Although free movement across counties and provinces is not allowed in North Korea (special travel permits are needed for that purpose), many North Koreans move around the country illegally.

Railways are the principal means of transportation. The basic railway pattern runs in a north-south direction, roughly parallel to the coasts, with branchlines to the river valleys. Because of the high mountains, there is only one east-west railway line, between P’yŏngyang and Wŏnsan. The west-coast line runs from Kaesŏng near the South Korean border to Sinŭiju on the Chinese border, connecting the major cities. From this main line a branch from P’yŏngyang southwestward to Namp’o connects centres of machine building and foundries. Another line runs northward from P’yŏngyang to Manp’o on the Yalu River, connecting the western interior to China’s northeastern provinces. The major railway on the east coast runs from Wŏnsan northward to Najin and continues to Namyang on the Chinese border. Several branchlines serve the inland areas and mining centres.

Highway transportation is not as important as railroads, because few motor vehicles are available. Major roads parallel the rail lines. Express highways connect P’yŏngyang with Wŏnsan, Namp’o, and Kaesŏng. Most roads, however, are not paved.

River transportation plays an important role in moving agricultural products, minerals, and passengers. The most important rivers utilized for freight transportation are the Yalu, Taedong, and Chaeryŏng. The major ports on the west coast are Namp’o—the entry port to P’yŏngyang—Haeju, and Tasa; the major eastern ports are Wŏnsan, Hŭngnam, Ch’ŏngjin, and Najin.

Air services are controlled by the air force. Flights are maintained between the major cities, and international services connect P’yŏngyang with Beijing and Moscow. Sunan International Airport is located northwest of P’yŏngyang; the larger domestic airports are located at Hamhŭng, Ch’ŏngjin, and Wŏnsan.

Government and society
Constitutional framework
The first constitution of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea was promulgated in 1948 and was replaced with a new constitution in 1972. Revisions were made in 1992 and, more extensively, in 1998. The 1998 amendments, made in the years following the death of Kim Il-sung—the country’s leader from 1948 until his death in 1994—were so extensive that a preamble was added to underline the continuity with the previous regime. The preamble concludes, “The DPRK Socialist Constitution is a Kim Il-sung constitution which legally embodies Comrade Kim Il-sung’s Juche state construction ideology and achievements.” According to the revised constitution, the chairman of the National Defense Commission—the position held by Kim Jong Il, Kim Il-sung’s son—is the country’s highest administrative authority. The head of government is the premier, assisted by several vice-premiers and a cabinet, the members of which are appointed by the national legislature, the Supreme People’s Assembly (SPA). The president of the SPA is North Korea’s titular head of state. In practice, however, the government is under the one-man leadership of Kim, who is also supreme commander of the Korean People’s Army and general secretary of the Korean Workers’ Party (KWP). The 1998 revision also enshrined his father as “eternal president.”

The SPA, constitutionally the highest organ of state power and the primary legislative body, consists of a single chamber with 687 members elected to five-year terms by universal adult suffrage; it also has a 15-member SPA Presidium, or Standing Committee, with members chosen from within the SPA, that meets when the assembly is not in session. The SPA’s regular sessions last for about a week and are convened once or twice a year by the SPA Presidium. The Presidium handles most of the day-to-day legislative business and hence holds much power. The constitution stipulates that the SPA Presidium is the highest organ of power during the intervals between sessions of the SPA, although the Presidium remains accountable to the SPA.

The National Defense Commission (NDC) is the organ to which the Ministry of the People’s Armed Forces and the State Security Department directly report. Under the constitution, the NDC is accountable only to the SPA.

Political power, as distinct from legislative power, is held by the Korean Workers’ Party (KWP), whose highest authority is the Party Congress, led by an elected Central Committee. The KWP draws up lists of approved candidates for elections. Policy is directed by the KWP’s political bureau (Politburo).

There are a number of nominal political parties and social organizations that serve to support the KWP. All political activities, however, are directed by the KWP or require its sanction and must closely follow the party line and policies. Elections provide a means whereby assent is registered for the policies and programs of the party. There is seldom more than one candidate on the ballot for each constituency, and the electoral system is completely controlled by the party.

Local government
North Korea is divided administratively into nine provinces (do or to), the special province-level municipalities (chikhalsi, or jikhalsi) of P’yŏngyang and Najin Sŏnbong, and the special administrative regions (chigu) of the Kŭmgang-san tourist region and the Kaesŏng industrial region. The provinces are further subdivided into ordinary cities (si), counties (gun, or kun), and villages (ri), the smallest administrative unit. There are both provincial and city (or county) people’s committees and people’s assemblies. The people’s committees discharge administrative functions, and the people’s assemblies perform legislative functions. The provincial people’s assemblies approve the appointment of members of provincial people’s committees; the city (or county) people’s assemblies perform similar functions for local people’s committees. The people’s committees operate under the control of the cabinet (central government). The KWP also maintains central, provincial, and city (or county) party committees to “guide” other branches of government.

Provincial governments, presumably upon approval of the central government, can also designate “special cities” (t’ŭkgŭpsi) locally, as in the case of Namp’o. This port city, located about 30 miles (50 km) southwest of P’yŏngyang, is where North Korea receives foreign aid materials that arrive by sea.

Justice
The judicial system consists of the courts and the public prosecutor’s offices. Judicial authority rests with the Central Court, whose judges are elected for three-year terms by the Supreme People’s Assembly, and with a number of lesser provincial and people’s courts, whose members are elected by local people’s assemblies. Judges usually are party members or are controlled by the party. The Central Procurator’s Office and the provincial and city public prosecutor’s offices handle criminal cases and maintain surveillance over all citizens; it is headed by a procurator-general, who is selected by the Supreme People’s Assembly. The courts and prosecutor’s offices are independent of each other.

Security
The country strongly emphasizes military preparedness, and economic plans have been tailored to support high military expenditures. With the start of the Kim Jong Il regime in 1998 a policy of “military first politics” (sŏngun chŏngch’i) was put in place; it enshrined a strong military as the guardian of North Korea’s accomplishments and the key component of its economic and political power, thus prioritizing it above other concerns of state. North Korea maintains one of the world’s largest military organizations. The army is by far the largest force; there are also an air force and a navy. All men and a limited number of women are subject to conscription. The duration of service officially is three to four years but typically lasts longer depending on the branch of service. There also are large reserve and paramilitary forces.

The country’s internal security system is large and extensive. People’s movements and social activities are monitored and controlled even down to the household level. The Ministry of Public Security functions as a national constabulary, while political control and counterintelligence are the responsibility of the State Security Department. Both the State Security Department and the Ministry of the People’s Armed Forces (the military) are under the direct control of the National Defense Commission.

Health and welfare
Medical care is free, and there is at least one clinic in each village, but there is a shortage of physicians, medical equipment, and medicine. Medical benefits are provided by social insurance for workers who are temporarily or permanently disabled and women during pregnancy and childbirth. There are also funeral benefits and old-age pensions. Homes for the aged in each province operate under the Ministry of Labour.

The overall standard of living and the lot of the peasants have improved since World War II. North Korea was established as a classless society, but a new, privileged elite of high-ranking military and KWP officials has emerged. Because of the high priority given to industrialization and defense, the provision of consumer goods and social services has long been inadequate. During the period of severe economic hardship in the 1990s, shortages of food and daily necessities and the collapse of the national grain-rationing system forced many North Koreans to desert their homes and families in search of food. Hospitals and health care centres ran out of medicine and medical supplies, and the social welfare system went through a period of failure despite sustained relief assistance extended by various national and international relief agencies.

Housing
Reconstruction of houses after the Korean War was given high priority, and dwellings have improved considerably. Rural mud-walled, thatched-roofed huts have been replaced by brick buildings with tile or slate roofs. Urban housing is classified into five groups that range from one room with a half-sized kitchen to free-standing houses with gardens. Workers, or “wage earners,” are expected to live in apartments rather than houses, and housing projects are supported almost solely by the government. Heating systems in the apartments and urban water supplies are inadequate. Numerous high-rise buildings have been constructed in the larger cities, especially in P’yŏngyang. City streets are notably empty of motor vehicles and pedestrians, as the North Koreans have few leisure hours.

Education
A total of 11 years of primary and secondary education are free and compulsory. The system comprises one year of preschool, four years of primary school, and six years of secondary school. Education serves as a process of inculcating communist ideology and a means to supply skilled workers, technicians, and scientists to meet the government’s economic goals. All students are required to engage in productive labour along with their studies, which emphasize science and technology. Institutions of higher education offer programs of two to six years in length; the most important institution of higher education is Kim Il-sung University in P’yŏngyang. There is also a well-developed system of adult education, the major components of which are technical schools located in large industrial centres.

Woo-ik Yu
Jung Ha Lee

Cultural life
The compound religious strains of shamanism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism have deep roots in Korean culture. Although the country has received continuous streams of foreign cultural influence mainly from China, Koreans have kept their identity and maintained and developed their unique language and customs. Westernization, begun in the late 19th century, was accomplished in harmony with Korean tradition and slowly transformed the culture without much conflict until the 1940s—notwithstanding Japanese attempts to obliterate Korean culture during its occupation of the peninsula.

After World War II the occupying Soviets did not recognize the Korean traditional family system or Confucian philosophy; age-old lineage records were burned, and the kinship system was broken. Through education, people were molded to fit the pattern of party idealism, and private life and individual freedom became extremely limited. Development plans since the Korean War have demanded much from the North Koreans in terms of patience and labour. As a result, the people have had to lead an austere existence. The standard of living improved over time, but leisure and cultural activities have continued to be regimented and geared toward organized group activities, such as rallies and museum tours.

The arts
The government is heavily involved with maintaining and advancing the traditional fine arts and other cultural features as an expression of nationalism. Statues of Kim Il-sung and public art commemorating the revolution are ubiquitous. The selection of cultural items is based on communist ideology, and writers and artists attempt to enhance class consciousness and propagate the superiority and independence of Korean culture. All North Korean writers, artists, dancers, and musicians are assigned to government institutions such as the National Theatre for the Arts and the State Symphony Orchestra in P’yŏngyang and provincial organizations of music, ballet, and drama. The P’yŏngyang University of Music and Dance provides arts education. Museums have been well supported by the government, and many archaeological sites have been excavated to promote the growth of a strong nationalistic feeling. Among the country’s most notable museums are the Korean Revolution Museum and the Korean Fine Arts Museum in the capital. Archaeological sites include those located in the Nangnang district of P’yŏngyang and at Kungsan, near Yonggang.

Press and broadcasting
Of the daily newspapers, the Rodong (or Nodong) sinmun (“Labour News”), published by the KWP Central Committee, and the government’s Minju Chosŏn (“Democratic Korea”) have the largest circulations. The monthly Kŭlloja (“Workers”) of the KWP Central Committee is one of the most influential periodicals. The Korean Central News Agency controls the dissemination of information, and all papers are strictly censored. The government long has recognized the importance of radio and television as mass media, and they have played a great role in ideological education. Radio broadcasts reach all parts of the country. Almost all North Korean households have access to radio broadcasts as a result of a government project to link household loudspeakers to village receivers. Television broadcasting in North Korea also has been made available to all parts of the country, and the number of television sets, both imported and domestically produced, has increased.

Chan Lee
Woo-ik Yu

 

History
The following is a treatment of North Korea since the Korean War. For a discussion of the earlier history of the peninsula, see Korea.

The Kim Il-sung era
In 1948, when the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea was established, Kim Il-sung became the first premier of the North Korean communist regime. In 1949 he became chairman of the Korean Workers’ Party (KWP), created from communist parties founded earlier. Until his death in 1994, Kim ruled the country with an iron hand by promoting a personality cult centred on himself as the “Great Leader” of the Korean people.

The 1950s and ’60s
In the aftermath of the Korean War, Kim purged the so-called “domestic faction”—an indigenous communist group that had remained in Korea during the colonial period—amid much scapegoating for the disastrous war. After 1956, as the Sino-Soviet conflict intensified, Kim shifted his positions vis-à-vis Moscow and Beijing no fewer than three times: from pro-Soviet to neutral, to pro-Chinese, and finally to independent. During 1956–58, he carried out a purge against the pro-Chinese group known as the Yenan faction and eliminated a pro-Soviet faction from the KWP Central Committee.

In 1966, after a visit to P’yŏngyang by Soviet Premier Aleksey N. Kosygin, Kim announced what became known as the independent party line in North Korea, which stressed the principles of “complete equality, sovereignty, mutual respect, and noninterference among the communist and workers’ parties.” From this party line, KWP theoreticians developed four self-reliance (juche) principles: “autonomy in ideology, independence in politics, self-sufficiency in economy, and self-reliance in defense.”

In the late 1960s the regime implemented a program for strengthening the armed forces. As part of the effort to fortify the entire country, more military airfields were constructed and large underground aircraft hangars were built. In addition, a large standing army and a strong militia were maintained.

North Korea’s emphasis on strengthening its military forces proceeded hand in hand with its continued focus on the development of a self-reliant economy. With aid from the Soviet Union, China, and the countries of eastern Europe, North Korea implemented a series of economic development plans and made significant gains. But as external aid declined sharply—first from the Soviet Union beginning in the late 1950s and then from China at the start of the Cultural Revolution in the mid-1960s—the seven-year plan of 1961–67 was seriously affected, as indicated by the extension of the plan for another three years.

Bae-ho Hahn
Young Ick Lew

From 1970 to the death of Kim Il-sung
Domestic developments
Two subsequent plans, a six-year plan (1971–76, extended to 1977) and a seven-year plan (1978–84), also failed to achieve their stated goals. While the country’s economic growth was hampered by the decline in foreign aid and its heavy expenditures on defense, the continued priority assigned to heavy industry created a severe shortage of daily commodities and lowered living standards. Food shortages were aggravated, in part because of an almost threefold increase in population from 1953 to 1993.

When the 1972 constitution was adopted, the premiership was changed to a presidency, which Kim Il-sung assumed; Kim also retained his post as the chairman (renamed the secretary-general) of the KWP. In 1980 the KWP held its first party congress in a decade. During the proceedings, Kim revealed his dynastic ambition by appointing his son, Kim Jong Il, to three powerful party posts, thus making the younger Kim his heir apparent. The younger Kim consolidated his power and gradually assumed increasing control over the day-to-day administration of the government until his father’s death in July 1994.

International relations
North Korea remained one of the most isolated and inaccessible countries in the international community, with severe restrictions on travel into or out of the country, a totally controlled press, and an ideology of self-reliance. In the 1970s and ’80s the North Korean government maintained its balanced diplomatic position between the country’s only two significant allies, China and the Soviet Union, while sustaining a hostile attitude toward the United States. The collapse of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the subsequent dissolution of the U.S.S.R. in the early 1990s left China as North Korea’s sole major ally. Even China, however, could no longer be relied upon fully, as it cultivated friendly relations with South Korea that culminated when the two established full diplomatic ties in August 1992.

When it became clear that North Korea could not count on its traditional allies to block South Korean membership in the United Nations (UN), it retreated from its long-standing position of insisting on a single, joint Korean seat. Both North Korea and South Korea were admitted to the UN on Sept. 17, 1991, as “separate and equal” members. Diplomatic breakthroughs between North and South created more cordial feelings between the two countries, but these quickly dissipated when suspicion grew that North Korea planned to build nuclear weapons.

Relations with the South
During the late 1960s North Korea had significantly escalated its subversion and infiltration activities against South Korea—from about 50 incidents in 1966 to more than 500 in 1967. One of its most brazen acts occurred on Jan. 21,1968, when a group of 21 North Korean commandos managed to reach within a few hundred yards of the South Korean presidential palace in Seoul in an attempt to kill Pres. Park Chung Hee. Two days later the North Korean navy forcibly seized a U.S. intelligence ship, the USS Pueblo, and its crew off North Korea’s east coast and held the crew hostage for nearly a year. In April 1969 North Korea shot down a U.S. reconnaissance plane in the international airspace over the east coast of the peninsula. North Korea’s armed provocations continued into the early 1970s, marking the period of highest military tension on the peninsula since the end of the Korean War.

The two Koreas subsequently decided to engage in a dialogue amid the new U.S policy of détente, or relaxation of tensions, toward the Soviet Union and China, North Korea’s two major allies. The North called off its armed provocations, and talks between the North and South began at P’anmunjŏm in the demilitarized zone in September 1971. High-level discussions began in early 1972, culminating in a historic joint communiqué in July, in which both sides agreed on three principles of reunification: that it be (1) peaceful, (2) without foreign influences, and (3) based on national unity. High-level discussions continued until August 1973, when they were unilaterally suspended by the North.

As the Vietnam War wound down and U.S. policies and public opinion became more focused on domestic issues, North Korea probed in vain for a chance to, in its view, “liberate” the South by means of a quick military strike. Meanwhile, South Korea tried to forestall a possible withdrawal of U.S. troops from Korea. In addition, human rights in South Korea became a thorny issue between the two allies. These trends together served to worsen U.S.–South Korean relations as well as inter-Korean relations until the early 1980s. South Korea’s President Park was assassinated on Oct. 26, 1979, and in 1980 Gen. Chun Doo Hwan seized power in South Korea. Meanwhile, the strongly anticommunist Ronald Reagan was elected president in the United States, ushering in closer U.S.–South Korean ties and cooler U.S.–North Korean relations.

In the early 1980s North Korea’s policy toward the South alternated, often bewilderingly, between peace overtures and provocation. In October 1980 Kim Il-sung unveiled a proposal for the creation of a confederate republic, the Koryŏ Confederation, through a loose merger of the two Koreas, based on equal representation. Later in the decade, however, the North engineered two major terrorist incidents against the South: the first was a bombing assassination attempt against President Chun in Rangoon, Burma (now Yangon, Myanmar), on Oct. 9, 1983, that killed 17 members of the presidential delegation; and the second was the destruction by time bomb of a South Korean airliner over the Indian Ocean on Nov. 29, 1987, killing all 115 people on board. Subsequently, the U.S government placed North Korea on its list of state sponsors of terrorism. North Korea was not removed from the list until October 2008.

Because of North Korea’s provocations, there was no official contact between the two Koreas in the 1980s, although there were some unofficial talks and contacts between their Red Cross societies. North-South relations reached a milestone in 1991 with the simultaneous admission of the two countries to the UN in September and a series of prime-ministerial talks that produced two agreements in December: one that pledged nonaggression, reconciliation, exchanges, and cooperation and a joint declaration on the denuclearization of the Korean peninsula. The agreements went into effect in February 1992. However, little came of them, especially after North Korea became embroiled in the controversy over its nuclear program and as it suspended all contacts with South Korea in early 1993.

Young Ick Lew
Jung Ha Lee

North Korea under Kim Jong Il
Domestic priorities and international cooperation
Kim Il-sung died on July 8, 1994, and his son Kim Jong Il succeeded him. However, he did not assume the posts of secretary-general of the KWP or president of North Korea. Instead, he consolidated his power over several years. In 1997 he officially became head of the KWP, and in 1998 the post of president was written out of North Korea’s constitution—Kim Il-sung was given the posthumous title “eternal president”—and Kim Jong Il was reelected chairman of the National Defense Commission, which became the country’s highest office. His regime adopted the basic guideline of “military first politics” (sŏngun chŏngch’i) to safeguard it from any unforeseen adverse impact resulting from such events as the collapse of the Soviet Union and eastern European communist regimes in the late 1980s and early 1990s and the persistent economic hardships at home.

The death of Kim Il-sung had come at a critical time for North Korea. The country had been locked in a dispute over nuclear issues with the United States and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which had been denied access by the North Koreans to an experimental facility at Yŏngbyŏn, where it was suspected that North Korea was diverting plutonium to build nuclear weapons. In the summer of 1994 the North had been preoccupied with the transfer of power to Kim Jong Il; however, by October the United States and North Korea had signed a nuclear accord (the “Agreed Framework”). Under the terms of this agreement, the North renounced efforts to develop nuclear weapons and pledged to abide by the Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (Non-proliferation Treaty; NPT), in exchange for which the United States arranged for the financing and construction of two light-water reactors (LWRs) capable of producing electric power. The agreement restored hope for North-South reconciliation and a peaceful reunification of the divided peninsula.

The United States, South Korea, and Japan formed an international consortium known as the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization (KEDO) for the construction of the LWRs in North Korea; South Korea was the main contractor. More than two dozen countries eventually signed onto the project, supplying material and financial help, and construction work progressed slowly but steadily for a time.

Nuclear ambitions
In late August 1998 North Korea fired a multistage, long-range missile eastward over Japanese airspace. This new missile capability caused shock worldwide and precipitated a major global controversy. In addition, suspected underground nuclear facilities were discovered near the sites whose activities were to have been frozen under the terms of the Agreed Framework.

It was reported in 2002 that North Korea was pursuing work toward producing highly enriched uranium, which could then be used to make nuclear weapons. In December of that year North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors from the facility at Yŏngbyŏn. In January 2003 North Korea withdrew from the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty, and nuclear research operations openly resumed at Yŏngbyŏn. Multiparty talks were initiated to resolve the various nuclear issues and ultimately came to involve the United States, North and South Korea, Russia, China, and Japan. These Six-Party Talks, as they were termed, ended in 2004 without reaching a resolution. In 2005 North Korea claimed to have nuclear weapons capability, although it was unknown whether the claim was true. After having suspended the LWR project for several years, KEDO withdrew its workers from North Korea in January 2006, and in May the organization decided to terminate the project. In October a seismic event was detected at Kilju, North Hamgyŏng province, and North Korea announced that it had carried out an underground test of a nuclear weapon. The country conducted another, more powerful underground nuclear test in May 2009, again near Kilju.

Jung Ha Lee

Internal challenges and international relations
Throughout the 1990s North Korea suffered severe food shortages that caused widespread starvation. In efforts to help North Korea cope with this crisis, South Korea, Japan, the United States, and international relief agencies (including the UN World Food Programme), provided emergency food and medical assistance. The North Korean government’s response inside the country included officially promoting what it called the “arduous march” (also termed the “meal-skipping campaign”). Despite these measures, hundreds of thousands of North Koreans died of starvation in the latter half of the 1990s, and a UN study found that life expectancy had decreased substantially and infant mortality had increased dramatically. The country’s economic situation began improving in the early 21st century, in part because of North Korea’s own efforts to accommodate certain aspects of market economics, including more open trading policies.

After Kim Jong Il’s consolidation of power under the 1998 constitution, his regime began to pursue formal diplomatic relations with many countries, including those of western Europe. By early 2001 North Korea had established relations with most of the West, amid a friendlier climate created by the improving inter-Korean relations. The United States, South Korea, and Japan also had reasons for keeping diplomatic channels open with North Korea, such as maintaining peace and seeking improvements in the country’s human rights situation. Despite its successes with other countries, however, North Korea did not make any substantive progress in its diplomatic talks with Japan and the United States, even after years of direct contact.

Relations with the United States in particular reached a low point in January 2002, when U.S. Pres. George W. Bush named North Korea, with Iran and Iraq, as part of an “axis of evil” of countries that were pursuing the development of weapons of mass destruction. Tensions remained high for several years. Multiparty talks in 2008 resulted in the U.S. government’s removal of North Korea from its list of state sponsors of terrorism in October, as North Korea took certain previously agreed-upon steps in connection with the pending nuclear issues.

In contrast to the hopeful beginning of the 21st century, however, the ensuing years saw the erosion of the gains that had been made in international cooperation. The joint ventures established under the “sunshine policy” after 2000 were suspended by the North within a few years. North Korea’s launch of several rockets in 2009—which the international community generally suspected were tests of ballistic missiles—were considered by many observers to be diplomatically provocative acts. Coinciding with the launches and the nuclear test, the name of Kim Jong Il’s youngest son, Kim Jong-un (Kim Jong Woon), began to be mentioned as his possible successor. The reported ill health of the aging Kim Jong Il made uncertain the direction the country would take in the future.

Relations with the South
After the death of Kim Il-sung and through the early years of the Kim Jong Il regime, the situation between North and South remained fairly static, although the countries participated in multiparty negotiations on nuclear issues and South Korea supplied aid to the North. Hopes were high at the turn of the 21st century that the issues dividing the two Koreas might soon be resolved. As part of his policy of reconciliation with the North, which he termed the “sunshine policy,” South Korean president Kim Dae Jung visited North Korea in June 2000—the first time any Korean head of state had traveled to the other side—and the two leaders worked out a five-point joint declaration that specified steps to be taken toward the ultimate goal of national unification. A select number of North and South Koreans were permitted to attend cross-border family reunions. Later that year, at the Summer Olympic Games in Sydney, North and South Korean athletes marched together (though they competed as separate teams) under a single flag showing a silhouette of the Korean peninsula. (The countries also made a joint appearance—with separate teams—at the 2004 Summer Olympic Games in Athens but failed to reach an agreement to do likewise at Beijing in 2008.) Kim Jong Il’s government reestablished diplomatic relations with several Western countries and pledged to continue its moratorium on missile testing.

Efforts to restore a North-South dialogue continued. In May 2007 trains from both the North and the South crossed the demilitarized zone to the other side, the first such travel since the Korean War. Later, in October, the two Koreas held a second summit, in which Roh Moo Hyun, the South Korean president, traveled to P’yŏngyang to meet with Kim Jong Il. The December 2007 election of Lee Myung-bak as South Korean president began another period of tension in inter-Korean relations as Lee took a more hard-line position toward P’yŏngyang. In 2008 North Korea announced that it planned to close the land border and all telephone links with South Korea in an apparent gesture of frustration over South Korea’s hard-line posture. Tensions escalated further when the North Korean government announced in January 2009 that it was nullifying all military and political agreements with South Korea and in May of that year that it was canceling all business contracts with South Korea that pertained to the joint-venture Kaesŏng Industrial Complex.

Jung Ha Lee
Ed.